Labyrinth spiders (Agelena labyrinthica) live across Europe and spend most of their lives alone, dining on small insects and, if the opportunity arises, other labyrinth spiders. However, despite their cannibalistic tendencies, labyrinth spiderlings are content to share a web with their siblings at a young age.

In a new study, published in the April volume of the journal Animal Behaviour, researchers put spider sibling tolerance to the test by depriving lab-reared labyrinth spiderlings of food. The researchers wanted to see whether the hungry spiderlings would turn on each other, but, to the researchers' surprise, the spiderlings remained civil.

"Spiders, even when starving, can be highly tolerant of their living siblings, with strong signals that prevent cannibalism," study authors Antoine Lempereur, a doctoral student, and Raphaël Jeanson, a senior researcher, both at the University of Toulouse in France and the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), told Live Science in an email.

However, these signals only appear to be active while the spiders are alive, because the spiderlings happily fed on their brothers and sisters once they were dead, according to the study.

Related: Watch enormous deep-sea spiders crawl around sub-Antarctic seafloor

Labyrinth spiders live in webs with intricate tunnel systems, or labyrinths. Females lay and hatch their eggs — up to 130 of them — in the central chamber of these webs during the summer. The resulting hatchlings remain in the web with their mother over winter, before emerging in spring, according to the Southwick Country Park Nature Reserve in England, which is home to labyrinth spiders.

The spiderlings initially live off egg yolk from the eggs they're born in, which is kept in their abdomens, and will eat their mother if she dies. However, they can also catch flies within days of hatching, so they're capable of hunting at a young age.

To learn more about why siblings aren't hostile to one another, Lempereur and Jeanson collected labyrinth spider egg sacs in southwest France and hatched them in a lab. Some of the spiders were kept in groups of four, while others were kept alone. None of the spiders were fed during the experiment, and after 20 days, the researchers started putting two hungry spiders into small plastic "arenas" to see how they would interact, according to the study.

The spiderlings raised in groups were significantly less aggressive to one another than the spiders raised alone, something Jeanson has already demonstrated in previous studies. The researchers suggested this is because social isolation reduces sensitivity to social signals.

"In short, a spider living alone has no reason to respond to cues emitted by other spiders, as it will never encounter them again, except during reproduction when other signals, such as sexual pheromones, come into play," Lempereur and Jeanson said.

While the group-reared spiders were typically not hostile to each other, they fed on their dead siblings just as quickly as the socially isolated spiders, which the researchers said was surprising for two reasons.

"First, spiders are typically predators of living prey rather than dead prey," Lempereur and Jeanson said. "Second, and more importantly, as shown in our previous work, spiders can tolerate living siblings for weeks but will consume dead siblings within an hour of their death."

Lempereur and Jeanson wrote in the study that living siblings could be sending a "life signal" to one another through chemicals, which is one of the ways spiders communicate. The researchers will now investigate the makeup of this signal.

Corleo, a hydrogen-powered robot with four legs designed to be ridden by humans, has been announced by Japanese manufacturer Kawasaki Heavy Industries at a showcase event ahead of the Osaka-Kansai Expo 2025, which starts April 13. However, the robot is still in its concept phase of development; a functioning prototype has not been made public.

This robot, unlike previous animal-shaped bots such as Boston Dynamics' dog Spot, is designed for people to ride it as the machinery uses artificial intelligence (AI) and specially designed legs to navigate complex terrains.

A promotional video released by Kawasaki on April 3 shows Corleo clambering down rocky cliffs, weaving through an overgrown woodland, bounding across a snowy landscape and wading through a stream. This video is not real footage, however, as the robot has not yet been fully developed to the extent that you can ride it.

"CORLEO is a completely new means of transportation that combines Kawasaki’s motorcycle and robotics technologies," Kawasaki executive officer Takashi Torii said, as reported by Tokyo Weekender.

The robot has four legs, each of which can move independently. These legs are also equipped with inward-facing knees and rubber two-toed cloven hooves, similar to those of a goat or a deer. Company representatives hope that it can one day carry up to two people on its back through a wide range of environments.

Related: Watch this humanlike robot 'rise from the dead' with creepy speed and stability

"The rear leg unit can swing up and down independently from the front leg unit, allowing it to absorb shocks during walking and running," Kawasaki representatives explained on the Corleo concept page of their website.

"The four legs are equipped with hooves featuring a left-right divided structure made of rubber, a material that absorbs surface irregularities and is slip-resistant," according to its website. "These hooves can adapt to various terrains, including grasslands, rocky areas, and rubble fields."

Horse power

Kawasaki proposes that Corleo will have an AI system that enhances its balance and navigation, with the robot responding to the body movements of the rider — just like a real horse. The robot will also have a heads-up display in front of the rider much like a motorcycle does, showing important information.

"Equipped with an instrument panel that displays hydrogen level, route to the summit, center of gravity position, and other information. At night, it supports optimal riding by projecting markers onto the road surface to indicate the path ahead," Kawasaki representatives added.

Corleo will be driven by a 150cc engine powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Hydrogen fuel cells work by converting chemical energy from hydrogen into electricity. Hydrogen gas is split into protons (H+) and electrons, and the electrons create electricity that can power the motor. This process produces zero emissions, with only water as a byproduct. Hydrogen fuel cells can easily be recharged by refuelling them with hydrogen gas.

This robot is still very much a concept for now, however. Kawasaki representatives suggested it may be launched by 2050, but they have not announced any solid development timeline, and there are no current plans for commercialization. The company also has not revealed any detailed technical specifications, including Corleo's speed, range of travel or battery life.

Rather than a functional prototype, a mock-up of Corleo will be featured at the Osaka-Kansai Expo, which runs from April 13 until October 13.

The discovery stemmed from an unusual temperature pattern scientists observed in Jupiter's atmosphere using the Keck Observatory in Hawai'i. Normally, Jupiter's powerful polar auroras inject significant heat into the gas giant's upper atmosphere near the poles.

These spectacular lights resemble those seen on Earth, where they're generated when energetic particles interact with our planet's magnetic field, but Jupiter's auroras are believed to proceed through a different mechanism and are far more intense and energetic.

When scientists from Reading University in England detected unexpectedly high temperatures stretching across half of Jupiter's circumference — reaching over 930 degrees Fahrenheit (500 degrees Celsius), significantly higher than the typical atmospheric background temperature of 660 degrees F (350 degrees C) — they were baffled.

Related: The chaotic heart of the Milky Way like you've never seen it before

"Typically, temperatures decrease gradually toward the equator, reflecting how auroral energy is redistributed across the planet," the team wrote in their paper, which was published April 3 in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.

As "there are no known heating mechanisms capable of producing a feature with these temperatures outside of the auroral region," the team proposed that the superheated region was likely "launched" toward the equator from the poles.

To figure out how this might have occurred, the researchers combined ground-based observations from the Keck telescope with data from NASA's Juno spacecraft, which has been exploring Jupiter and its moons since 2016. They traced the cause of this sudden heat displacement to a dense burst of solar wind that compressed Jupiter's enormous magnetosphere — a magnetic bubble surrounding the planet, shaped by its own magnetic field. (Earth has one, too! In fact, life would not be possible without it.)

"We have never captured Jupiter's response to solar wind before — and the way it changed the planet's atmosphere was very unexpected," study lead author James O'Donoghue of the University of Reading said in a statement. "This is the first time we've ever seen a thing like this on any outer world."

The compression of the magnetosphere by the solar wind appears to have intensified auroral heating at Jupiter's poles, causing the upper atmosphere to expand and spill hot gas typically confined to the poles down toward the equator, team members said.

"The solar wind squished Jupiter’s magnetic shield like a giant squash ball," O'Donoghue said. "This created a super-hot region that spans half the planet. Jupiter's diameter is 11 times larger than Earth's, meaning this heated region is enormous."

And such solar wind events are believed to hit Jupiter two to three times per month!

Scientists had previously thought that Jupiter's fast rotation would shield it from such effects, keeping auroral heating confined to the polar regions due to barriers created by the planet's strong winds. However, the new findings challenge that assumption, revealing that even the solar system's largest planet is at the sun's mercy.

"We've studied Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus in increasing detail over the past decade. These giant planets are not as resistant to the sun's influence as we thought — they're vulnerable, like Earth," O'Donoghue said in the statement.

"Jupiter acts like a laboratory, allowing us to study how the sun affects planets in general," he added. "By watching what happens there, we can better predict and understand the effects of solar storms which might disrupt GPS, communications and power grids on Earth."

Originally posted on Space.com.

Like many of the best binoculars for birdwatching, these compact binoculars are designed to be travel-friendly and easy to carry in your bag while still providing clear and detailed optical performance. The best binoculars for stargazing, however, tend to be bigger and heavier to let in more light.

The quick list

The best compact binoculars we recommend in 2025

Best overall

The Olympus 8x25 WP II are a solid choice for anyone looking for a pair of compact, waterproof binoculars that delivers sharp optics in a lightweight package but doesn't break the bank.

With an 8x magnification and 25mm objective lenses, they strike a good balance between portability and performance. During our Olympus 8x25 WP II review, we thought the optics were surprisingly good thanks to their class-leading BaK-4 porro prisms, as well as fully multi-coated optics to maximize the light transmission and sharpness.

While they may not have the largest objective lenses for low-light observations, they excel in daylight use, offering a great combination of clarity, durability and portability — we could comfortably fit them in the palm of our hand and hold them surprisingly steady despite their small size. Their rubber-coated body had a velvety feel and aided for a secure grip — we never felt like they were going to slip out of our hands.

Our only tiny gripe was that the small eyepiece covers are easy to misplace due to them being slip-on and unable to tether to the provided strap. Still, for the price, we think these binoculars are the perfect option for compact binoculars with a fantastic viewing experience.

• Read our full Olympus 8x25 WP II review

• Back to the top ⤴

Best image-stabilized

The Nikon 12x25 S stand out in the compact binocular market due to their electronic image stabilization, effectively reducing the hand shake that you often find with higher magnification, delivering a steady and clear viewing experience.

Weighing just 13.9 oz (395g) and measuring no more than 10cm on their longest edge, they are absolutely tiny and are fantastic for birdwatching and watching musicians or athletes from afar. Many of the best image-stabilized binoculars are big, heavy and bulbous, but the Nikon 12x25 S will easily fit into your pocket.

They're powered by two AA batteries, giving an approximate battery life of up to 12 hours — but don't worry, there's an auto-shut off feature that activates after 60 minutes of inactivity in order to preserve the battery life. A 10x25 variant is also available, but we'd recommend the 12x magnification pair in order to get the most out of the image stabilization.

If your budget can't quite stretch to these but you still want image stabilization, the Canon 10x20 IS are also fantastic and a little cheaper, but they are slightly bigger and heavier than the Nikon pair.

• Want shake-free views? Check out the best image-stabilized binoculars.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best for stargazing

Compact binoculars and the best binoculars for stargazing are somewhat opposites. The objective lenses need to be bigger in order to let all the light in when it's dark, and a higher magnification means more detailed views of distant objects. Both of these factors often result in a bigger, heavier pair of binoculars that are by no means considered "compact".

Typically, a 10x42 pair would be the minimum we would recommend for stargazing, so the Nikon Prostaff P7 10x42 likely won't be able to view deep-sky objects, but for impressive lunar views and sweeping views of the night sky, they're great. As far as stargazing binoculars go, the P7s are one of the most compact pairs you can get that will still have the magnification and objective diameter needed.

During our full Nikon Prostaff P7 10x42 review, we thought that the optics were fantastic, especially considering they don't have any of the special glass elements that higher-end binoculars have. We also loved the locking diopter wheel which prevents accidental defocusing while in use, and they are fully waterproof and nitrogen-purged to prevent fogging when moving between cold and warm environments.

• Read our full Nikon Prostaff P7 10x42 review

• Back to the top ⤴

Best for kids

The best binoculars for kids aren't always just a cheap toy: Some of them actually have pretty decent optics that the whole family can use. If you're looking for an inexpensive and durable pair of binoculars for your child, the Occer 12x25 are a great option as they typically only cost around $30.

During our full Occer 12x25 review, we thought that although they aren't suitable for low-light observation, and the optics weren't the best we've ever used, the views were sharp and pretty bright, though we did struggle to nail the focus at times. The interpupillary distance is also somewhat restrictive, so small kids or anyone with narrow-set eyes may struggle to get a perfect view without vignetting.

We also noticed some chromatic aberration, but that's not unexpected for the low price. To eliminate that completely, we're talking big bucks.

We thought they felt legitimately sturdy in the hand, and there's nothing fragile that can be broken off or damaged if kids were to handle them roughly. They're ideal for spotting birds in the back garden or taking on camping trips.

• Read our full Occer 12x25 review

• Back to the top ⤴

Best midrange

The Celestron TrailSeeker 8x32 ED are a very compelling option for outdoor enthusiasts looking for a pair of binoculars that offer portability without compromising on optical performance. They're designed to deliver bright, clear images in a compact form factor, making them ideal for birdwatching and taking on hikes.

The addition of the Extra Dispersion (ED) glass significantly reduces chromatic aberration, which appears as purple and green color fringing around highly contrasted areas, like trees against the sky. This results in a sharper image with increased clarity and color reproduction. Although we haven't reviewed this particular model, we have been continuously impressed with Celestron's optics.

Their impressive optics, combined with their waterproof and fogproof housing, make them some of the best binoculars for birdwatching when portability is a big factor. These features are typically found in higher-priced models, so we think that although they aren't necessarily that budget-friendly, they are fairly priced for what they can offer.

If you're looking for the next step up from your beginner pair of binoculars, they're a great option.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best premium

All the Leica optics we've tested are a testament to their precision engineering and optical excellence, with binoculars that offer premium viewing in a compact form factor. But the Leica Ultravid 8x20 BR go a step further with their ultralight form at just 8.5 oz (240 g) — that makes them the most lightweight pair in this list.

Despite their small size, they deliver outstanding optical performance with sharp and vibrant images with excellent clarity and color reproduction. Users have reported minimal chromatic aberration — something we also noticed in our review of the larger Leica Ultravid 8x50 HD Plus model.

The 8x20 specs are ideal for keen wildlife observers who don't want to compromise on quality, but the 20mm objectives will be too small if you want to observe anything in low light, so they are best suited to daytime use.

While they come with an undeniably high price tag for such a small pair of binoculars, we think the investment is justified by the exceptional optics, durable construction and Leica's stellar reputation. If you're looking for high performance that will last a long time, they're definitely worthy of consideration.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best compact binoculars: comparison

Compact binoculars: Frequently Asked Questions

How we test compact binoculars

To test the best compact binoculars, we prioritize their comfort and portability when using them out in the field for both long and short periods to assess how easy they are to use, their optical performance and overall user experience.

As compact binoculars are much smaller than many of the best binoculars, we take note of how they compare in terms of interpupilarry distance, eye relief, how comfortable they are both to hold in the hand and carry around the neck, and the quality of any accessories they come with. Just because these optics are a lot smaller, doesn't mean they can get away with having less impressive optics.

We consider their intended use and our expert reviewes test them in real-world situations — as these compact binoculars are ideal for traveling, hiking and wildlife observation, we make sure to use them for such activities. There would be no use using a pair of 8x20s for stargazing and then reporting that they weren't very good, as that's not what they were designed for.

This striking satellite footage shows the moon's shadow racing across North America at more than 1,500 mph (2,400 km/h) during 2024's historic total solar eclipse, when several unique phenomena were observed as day briefly turned to night.

On April 8 last year, tens of millions of people in the U.S., Canada and Mexico looked up to the skies to see the moon temporarily block out our home star. During the event, totality — the period in which the sun is completely obscured — lasted up to 4 minutes and 28 seconds, depending on the viewer's location. This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the continent since 2017, but the longest totality there for 54 years.

From space, the darkest part of the moon's shadow, or umbra, slowly swept across the continent from western Mexico to eastern Canada over roughly 4 hours, allowing satellites and astronauts to snap some stunning shots of the event.

NOAA's 16th Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES-16) was one of these orbital observers. This spacecraft is geostationary, meaning that it orbits Earth at the same speed as the planet spins, allowing it to watch one part of Earth from a fixed position. From its vantage point around 22,300 miles (36,000 kilometers) above North America, the satellite captured thousands of photos that were later digitally stitched together into the time-lapse video above.

Related: See all the best images of Earth from space

Photos from other spacecraft also provided alternative perspectives of the sweeping shadow.

NASA's Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) captured video of the shadow moving across the globe from its position, roughly 1 million miles (1.6 million kilometers) from Earth. And astronauts onboard the International Space Station (ISS) also snapped up-close photos of the shadow from around 260 miles (418 kilometers) above our planet's surface.

A unique event

Several strange phenomena can occur during a total solar eclipse, and 2024 was no exception.

Many observers spotted pink or red spots around the sun's obscured disc. Some people wrongly assumed that these were solar flares exploding from the sun. Experts later revealed that these were solar prominences — plasma plumes that tower above the sun but do not explode outward.

On the same day as the eclipse, astronomers also discovered a tiny sungrazer comet dive-bombing toward the sun. The newly spotted object was then photographed during totality, before it was destroyed by our home star just a few hours later.

One of the most bizarre effects observed was a subtle shift in global time signals sent and received by communication centers across North America as the sun's shadow cooled the upper atmosphere, slightly altering how radio signals bounced off this part of our planet. However, the changes were too small to impact any time-keeping devices.

Several other unusual things were seen during totality, including disappearing clouds, daytime-visible planets, changes to color perception and optical effects around the sun as seen from Earth, such as "Baily's beads" and "diamond rings." Some wild and captive animals also appeared to be confused as the skies turned dark.

The world's next total solar eclipse will occur on Aug. 12, 2026 and will be most visible from parts of Greenland, Iceland and Spain.

Scientists at Colossal Biosciences, a biotech-based conservation company best known for trying to bring back woolly mammoths, say they have successfully produced three dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus) pups. They did this by reconstructing the wolf's genome from ancient DNA, identifying versions of genes seen only in dire wolves and not in the extinct carnivores' living relatives.

The team then tweaked DNA from modern-day gray wolves (Canis lupus) to include these unique gene variants. They inserted the DNA into denucleated gray wolf egg cells and allowed them to mature in the lab before introducing them into surrogate dogs' wombs, TIME reported. Three embryos successfully implanted in three surrogate dogs, leading to the births of snowy white pups named Romulus, Remus and Khaleesi, which are reminiscent of Ghost, Jon Snow's dire wolf in HBO's "Game of Thrones" television series.

Related: 'We didn't know they were going to be this cute': Scientists unveil genetically engineered 'woolly mice'

"Our team took DNA from a 13,000 year old tooth and a 72,000 year old skull and made healthy dire wolf puppies," Colossal CEO Ben Lamm said in a statement. "It was once said, 'any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.' Today, our team gets to unveil some of the magic they are working on."

How to make a dire wolf

To "de-extinct" the dire wolf, the team used a process similar to the one that led to Dolly the sheep in 1996.

To produce a perfect clone with this method a single cell is removed from the cloning subject and its genetic material, held in the cell's nucleus, is extracted. This genetic information is then inserted into the egg of a donor animal from the same species whose own nucleus has been removed. The egg now contains all of the genetic information required to rebuild the original cloning subject and is transferred to a surrogate to carry to term.

However, because dire wolves went extinct at the end of the last ice age, Colossal had to approximate their own dire wolf cells by piecing together clues from the fossil record.

To reconstruct the animal's genome, they used genetic samples from dire wolf fossils and compared these to the genomes of their living relatives, including wolves, jackals and foxes. They selected gray wolves to be the egg donors, as these animals are the closest living cousins to dire wolves.

This genomic analysis enabled the scientists to identify 20 key differences in 14 genes that were responsible for the dire wolves' distinguishing characteristics, including their larger size, white coat, larger teeth and characteristic howling.

Next, they collected cells from blood samples of living gray wolves — a less invasive method than using a chunk of tissue, as was done for Dolly the sheep. Then, using CRISPR gene-editing technology, the team made 20 edits to the 14 identified genes so that they bore the same sequence as the wolves' ancient relatives.

Once these "dire wolf cells" were created, their nuclei were extracted and inserted into eggs from a living gray wolf. As with Dolly the sheep, these donor egg cells had their own nuclei removed to make space for the new DNA. Reproductive cells — like eggs and sperm — normally have just one copy of each chromosome; however, cells from the body carry two copies. So transferring the nucleus from a body cell into a reproductive cell provides it with all the genetic instructions needed to mature into an embryo.

The eggs were allowed to mature into embryos in the lab, resulting in 45 embryos that were transferred into the wombs of two domestic dogs, which are technically a subspecies of the gray wolf.

Only one embryo in each surrogate took hold. After 65 days of gestation, Romulus and Remus were born via cesarean section, on Oct. 1, 2024. The whole process was repeated again a few months later with a third surrogate dog, who birthed Khaleesi three months later.

Colossal has shared footage of Romulus and Remus as they take their first steps, make their first howls and develop from newborns into young cubs. They have described the dire wolves as "the world's first de-extinction."

However, there has been one other de-extinction: In 2003 scientists in Spain cloned an extinct wild goat species known as a bucardo, or a Pyrenean ibex (Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica). But the newborn goat died only minutes after birth, according to a 2009 study.

Colossal have also announced the birth of two litters of cloned red wolves, the most critically endangered wolf in the world, the company said in a statement.

The announcement comes just months after Colossal unveiled genetically engineered "woolly mice", which have fur similar to the thick hair of woolly mammoths, marking a major milestone in the company's project to bring back these ice age titans by 2028.

It syncs with three of the main health apps, too: Apple Health, Fitbit and Google Fit.

The scale has a sleek, well made design and feels durable — and it's designed not to tip up when you stand on it.

Read on for our full and in-depth review of the Eufy P3 smart scale, from how easy it was to set up and use to our verdict on its design, accuracy and performance. For more products, check out our guide to the best smart scales.

Eufy P3 smart scale review

Eufy P3 smart scale review: How it works

If you're new to smart scales, they are a clever bit of kit that can give insight into not just your weight, but also other body composition statistics, including muscle mass, body fat and more.

They work by sending a small (safe) electrical current through the body to measure body composition. You stand on the scale barefoot and the reading will then provide detailed health insights about your weight, body fat percentage, bone density, muscle mass and more.

When measuring for the first time, place the scales on a flat surface and select your user profile so it records the reading for the right person (the scales are meant to automatically recognize users based on their previous stats). After measuring, your weight and some of the other metrics will be shown on the screen.

For more detailed body composition data, you need to download the Eufy Life app, available for free via iOS and Android, where you can view it.

You can’t feel the electrical charge and it’s safe for most people, unless you are pregnant, have a pacemaker, or medical implant. If any of these apply to you, speak to your health professional first before using one.

Smart scales can vary in accuracy but they are still a useful way to track changes in body composition, and can be helpful if you are trying to lose weight or get fitter.

Eufy P3 scale review: Design and features

The Eufy P3 smart scales are well designed, minimalist and easy to set up and use. The black model we tested comes with four AAA batteries, and you can change the weight metric between kilograms, pounds or stones by pressing a small button on the back.

It's super fast to set up, and comes with a user guide. You can use the P3 without its accompanying Eufy Life app, but you'll only be able to see your weight.

When you download the app, it runs you through Bluetooth and Wi-Fi setup, and all you need to do is set up your profile and stand on the scales to take your first reading.

The scale is made from black plastic with a tempered glass top, which looks really smart but smears easily and is delicate. You would not want to drop anything on this, or indeed drop it. It is also slippery when wet — so avoid using the scale straight out of a bath, shower or sauna.

Turn it over and you'll find the battery compartment, unit change button and four anti-slip rubber feet to keep the scale from tipping over.

It has a large and colorful display, which is easy to read. It also has battery, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth indicators so that you know where you stand with charge and connection. You can tell when the power is on because the Eufy's "e" logo will be lit up in the center.

The appliance has a wide footprint (12.8 x 12.8 inches / 32.5 x 32.5 cm) and weighs about 70 oz (2 kg).

Download the free supporting Eufy Life iOS or Android app to connect via Bluetooth or WiFi (5G not compatible). Here you will find more detailed analysis of your body composition stats including weight, BMI, body fat, muscle mass, heart rate, basal metabolic rate (BMR), water, body fat mass, lean body mass, bone mass, visceral fat, protein, skeletal muscle mass, subcutaneous fat, metabolic (body) age and body type.

You can view these stats by day, week or month. You can also export a report on a certain date or multiple dates, and track your progress on an individual graph for each metric via the Trends section.

The app also allows you to export results as a PDF or image rather than a CSV spreadsheet-style file. You can also view all your history, and look at any unmatched or unfamiliar data for you to assign to a user. This is helpful if you encounter issues with matching results to different users.

When you click on a stat the P3 explains what that stat means, gives some detailed insight into whether your reading is low or high, and some tips for how to change this. You can swipe left or right on the app to scroll easily between stats. You can customize these metrics on the app to prioritize the ones you care about the most.

Click on Data Analysis and you can set a goal for the different body stats, so if you want to lose body fat, you can input a target you want to work towards.

There are unlimited users on the Eufy P3 smart body fat scales and it also has baby, pregnancy, pet and athlete modes.

It comes with a calorie intake feature which allows you to add your meals and drinks and set a daily kcal goal. However, there's no option to scan the food via barcode (like on MyFitnessPal), so everything has to be entered manually.

The default setting in the app sends push notifications reminding you to weigh yourself daily, which is ill-advised and could be triggering for some, and lead to disordered behavior. I immediately unchecked this each day to turn it off, but that was a pain.

Eufy P3 smart scale review: Accuracy and performance

The user guide boasts that the P3 has high-precision sensors, but I noticed that it was actually a little too sensitive. During testing, I would tap the scale with my foot to try and change the user but it would often switch back to the weight screen while I was working my way through the different profiles, attributing my stats to the wrong person.

Once you get a reading, however, they are satisfyingly detailed, and it's very beginner-friendly, as it spells out in layman's terms what each metric means, along with your rating (for example, low, high) and lifestyle tips to make changes.

The P3 measures 16 different body composition stats and the data is tracked on graphs so you can review your progress over different periods of time.

You can set whether you want the scale to show your weight in pounds, kilograms or stones in the app, and it remembers the setting. You can also use a button on the bottom of the scale to switch between unit types, although when the app connects, its settings will override the button.

If you are pregnant or have a pacemaker or other ICD (implantable cardioverter defibrillator, a battery-powered device implanted under the skin that monitors and regulates the heart rhythm), you can use Simple mode to disable the electrical signals used to measure bioimpedance for body fat and stats. The P3 will then turn into more of a traditional scale, recording only your weight and foregoing the other measurements. It also has a pet and athlete mode.

The P3 will automatically distinguish between users as long as their weights are dissimilar enough. There seems to be about a six-pound discrepancy between users before you have to manually switch the user profile in the app.

The P3 connects to some of the best fitness trackers, including Apple Health, Google Fit and Fitbit, but it would be nice if it worked with other mainstream health and fitness apps.

The app is easy to use, but results can vary. The Eufy P3 reading put our tester at 35.1% body fat compared with a reading of 31.5% on the Renpho smart scales (the scales that proved to be most accurate in our testing and comparisons with a professional body composition machine at the gym).

Our tester's body water reading was 46.3% on the Eufy and 46.9% on the Renpho, so not dissimilar; however, their Basal Metabolic Rate was measured at 1,215 kcal compared with 1,365 kcal on the Renpho. Our tester's weight reading also seemed to fluctuate, varying by as much as three pounds despite readings sometimes being taken within minutes of each other.

Eufy P3 smart scale review: Verdict

The P3 is a neat little smart scale, fairly affordable ($99.99) with a ton of metrics and some useful intel and tips that could contribute to a healthier lifestyle. It's fairly accurate for home scales, well made and durable.

It's easy to set up and use and it syncs easily with the app. The main complaints are that it doesn't always differentiate between users, smears easily and doesn't link with many third-party apps. It also reminds you to weigh yourself with push notifications by default, which could lead to disordered behaviour.

But if you're looking for a decent smart scale that tracks a lot of body composition metrics and provides some useful insights in simple language, this is a good option.

If this product isn't for you

Renpho smart scale

The Renpho smart scale is one of the best devices for measuring body fat that we’ve tested. Despite its low price, it offers real bang for your buck with its smart design, accurate readings and excellent companion app that gives useful insight into the stats.

Wyze Scale X

The Wyze Scale X is an affordable smart scale that offers some useful health and fitness metrics. It has a weight trends chart to help you track your progress and, considering its low price, it’s a great investment with lots of useful features, including a heart rate monitor.

The three satellites, designated Kosmos 2581, 2582 and 2583, launched on a Soyuz-2.1V rocket from Plesetsk cosmodrome early on Feb. 2 (GMT). Since then, the satellites, whose purpose is unknown, have displayed interesting behavior, while in a near-polar orbit roughly 364 miles (585 kilometers) above Earth.

In March, the satellites appeared to be conducting potential proximity operations, or maneuvering close to other objects in space, according to Jonathan McDowell, an astrophysicist and spaceflight activity tracker.

Following this, the U.S. Space Force cataloged a new object in orbit, which was possibly released by Kosmos 2581 on March 18.

Russia has provided no details about the satellites and their mission. Many Kosmos missions are classified.

The released object could be used for a number of objectives, including military experiments, such as satellite inspection or target practice, testing technology for docking or formation flying. It may also be a scientific payload or even the result of an unintentional fragmentation, though this would usually result in numerous pieces of debris.

Related: NASA signs new contract to use SpaceX's Starship — even though it keeps blowing up

The Kosmos (or Cosmos) designation has been used by the Soviet Union and later Russia for a very wide range of military and scientific satellites since 1962. The satellites have covered a range of apparent uses, some of which are experimental, secret, or part of military programs, including early ASAT (anti-satellite) tests and satellite inspection, reconnaissance and electronic intelligence.

Satellite trios flying in formation in orbit is not unusual. Both the United States (for example, the Naval Ocean Surveillance System) and China (Yaogan) have launched numerous sets of satellite triplets, many of which are thought to be for electronic intelligence purposes, along with other satellite series.

However, it remains to be seen what the three Kosmos satellites and their new companion will get up to in orbit.

Originally posted on Space.com.

Buy the Celestron AstroMaster 102AZ Telescope for just $278.99 at Amazon.

If you're a novice skywatcher of any age or shopping for a gift for a budding astronomer, this telescope deal is a great value for money purchase. Amazon has a $71 discount as standard, but there's also a free coupon on the listing page that reduces the price by an extra $20. Be sure to check the box marked "Apply $20 coupon". The coupon saving expires at 23.59 on April 15th.

Expert reviewer Russ Swan tested out Celestron's AstroMaster 102AZ Telescope for our sister site Space.com. In his full Celestron AstroMaster 102AZ Telescope review he gave it a respectable 3.5 out of 5 stars. Russ praised its quality optics, ease of use and its dual purpose functionality for astronomy and wildlife viewing as some of its key features.

At full price, the Celestron AstroMaster 102AZ Telescope is excellent value, but with 20% off the usual price, plus a further $20 coupon in this deal, it's hard to beat. The build quality is good too, with fully-coated 102mm primary mirrors, a lightweight frame and a manual Altazimuth mount for smooth and accurate pointing. There's also a Celestron 2-year warranty and unlimited access to technical support from Celestron's team of US-based experts.

Key features: Powerful and user-friendly refractor telescope, fully-coated glass optics, lightweight frame, 2 eyepieces, a StarPointer red dot finderscope, adjustable tripod.

Price history: This telescope have been as low as $265.69. This price, with the extra $20 coupon takes it below that, and the lowest price we've seen this year.

Reviews consensus: This beginner's telescope is a versatile choice and will have you covered from viewing the night sky to viewing wildlife — especially at this price. Amazon reviewers have been overwhelmingly positive on the Celestron AstroMaster 102AZ Telescope, and it gets an aggregate score of 4.3 out of 5 from over 4,000 ratings, with 68% of reviewers giving the telescope top marks.

Space: ★★★½

Buy it if: You want a telescope that's easy to use and is suitable for astronomy and wildlife spotting and you but don't want to spend too much.

Don't buy it if: You're an experienced astronomer and have the budget to spend on a high-tech piece of equipment — we rate the Unistellar eVscope 2 when we reviewed it and we think it is one of the best smart telescopes.

On Sunday (April 6), the Texas Department of State Health Services (DSHS) reported that, prior to death, the school-age child had tested positive for measles and was being treated in a hospital in the city of Lubbock. They died on Thursday (April 3) of measles pulmonary failure, the child's doctors said.

"The child was not vaccinated and had no reported underlying conditions," the department's statement noted.

The measles outbreak in West Texas began in January. The first pediatric death, also in an unvaccinated, school-age child, was announced in February and marked the United States' first measles fatality since 2015.

Related: Are you protected against measles? Do you need a booster shot? Everything you need to know about immunity

In addition to these two children's deaths in Texas, a third death was reported in a New Mexico resident that was possibly linked to the outbreak. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is still conducting an independent investigation to confirm that the third death is related to the outbreak.

As of April 4, the Texas DSHS has confirmed 481 cases of measles in the states' South Plains and Panhandle regions. That's up from 124 cases in late February.

Most of the cases reported to date in Texas have been in children, and so far, 56 people have been hospitalized for their infections. Based on the DSHS's outbreak dashboard, Gaines County has reported the majority of the cases — more than 300 — followed by Terry and Lubbock counties, which are reporting cases in the dozens.

Additionally, according to the dashboard, the vast majority of people affected have been unvaccinated. Of the 481 cases reported, 471 affected people were unvaccinated or have unknown vaccination status. Three were documented in people who have received just one dose of the measles vaccine; seven cases have been reported in people who received two doses, the number recommended for maximum protection.

One dose is 93% effective against measles infections, while two doses are 97% effective. That immunity is typically lifelong, and the shots not only guard against measles, but also protect against long-term complications of the disease, some of which can be deadly. So even if an individual survives their initial bout of measles, they can face long-term health consequences or fatality after the fact.

Across the whole U.S., there have been 607 cases of measles confirmed by the CDC so far in 2025. (This total may not match the full number being reported by individual states, as the CDC has an independent process for confirming cases.)

Of these CDC-confirmed cases, 97% have affected people who were unvaccinated or whose vaccination status is unknown. The remaining 3% impacted people with one or two doses of the measles vaccine. About 12% of those infected have been hospitalized.

The meteorites were recovered from near the Costa Rican town of Aguas Zarcas, and are of a type referred to as 'mudballs', in the sense that they contain water-rich minerals.

The findings have resulted in a reappraisal of these so-called mudball meteorites. It had been assumed that their high content of water-rich minerals would make them structurally weaker than other types of meteorites, rendering them more susceptible to damage or burning. But, "Apparently, [the presence of water-rich minerals] … does not mean they are weak," said Peter Jenniskens, a meteor astronomer from the SETI Institute and NASA Ames Research Center in California, in a statement.

Scientists say the discovery rivals one of the largest discoveries of meteorites nearly 50 years prior. "Twenty-seven kilograms [60lbs] of rocks were recovered, making this the largest fall of its kind since similar meteorites fell near Murchison in Australia in 1969," said Jenniskens.

The Murchison meteorite fall occurred just two months after the Apollo 11 mission. The recovered pieces showed that evidence of having been altered by liquid water on its parent body before an impact smashed apart that parent body and sent the Murchison and, later, the Aguas Zarcas meteoroids spinning into space. (Meteoroids are what we call meteorites when they are in space.)

Video camera footage shows the 2019 mudball meteor entering the atmosphere from the west-north-west direction over Costa Rica at a steep, almost vertical angle of 81 degrees, and at a velocity of 9 miles (14.6 kilometers) per second. This steep angle allowed the meteor passed through less of Earth's atmosphere than it would have if it had approached on a shallower angle. That means more of the original meteoroid survived the fiery passage through the sky above Costa Rica.

Based on the incoming meteor's trajectory, "We can tell that this object came from a larger asteroid low in the asteroid belt, likely from its outer regions," said Jenniskens.

As it entered Earth's atmosphere, the rocky body is estimated to have been about 23.6 inches (60 centimeters) across. Friction with the atmosphere generated heat that melted its surface, stripping away much of the rock in a process known as ablation as it began to burn up.

"It penetrated deep into Earth's atmosphere, until the surviving mass shattered at 15.5 miles (25 kilometers) above the Earth's surface, where it produced a bright flash that was detected by satellites in orbit," said Jenniskens.

Those satellites were the Geostationary Operational Environment Satellites (GOES) 16 and 17 and their lightning detectors, which are Earth-observing satellites operated by NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAO).

The fragments scattered themselves across the soft ground of Costa Rican jungle and grasslands, where they were subsequently found by meteorite hunters and volunteers. But the meteorites had a slightly unusual appearance.

"The Aguas Zarcas fall produced an amazing selection of fusion-crusted stones with a wide range of shapes," said meteor scientist Laurence Garvie of the Buseck Center for Meteorite Studies at Arizona State University. "Some stones have a beautiful blue iridescence to the fusion crust."

The fusion crust is the glassy, melted surface of a meteorite after it has endured ablation.

Usually, meteorites have some flat sides, where they have broken apart as the result of stress fractures in the original meteoroid that were placed there by collisions in space with other meteoroids. The rounded rather than flat shapes of the Aguas Zarcas meteorites suggested that the meteoroid had travelled through space relatively unscathed after being blasted off its parent body.

It has even been possible to calculate how long ago that was. Exposure to cosmic rays alters the composition of a meteoroid, so the degree of alteration tells us how long a meteoroid has been in space after breaking off its parent body.

"The last collision experienced by this rock was two million years ago," said cosmochemist Kees Welton of UC Berkeley, who led this part of the study.

"After getting loose, it took two million years to hit the tiny target of Earth, all the time avoiding getting cracked," added Jenniskens. This seems surprisingly recent, given the 4.6-billion-year history of the solar system.

"We know of other Murchison-like meteorites that broke off at approximately the same time [as Murchison], and likely in the same event, but most broke much more recently," said Welton, with the Aguas Zarcas meteorites exemplifying the point.

Perhaps it is appropriate that the last word goes to Gerado Soto of the University of Costa Rica in San José, who draws similarities with the Murchison meteorite fall and its closeness in time to Apollo 11.

"The fall of Aguas Zarcas was huge news in the country. No other fireball was as widely reported and then recovered as stones on the ground in Costa Rica in the past 150 years," he said. "The recovery of Aguas Zarcas [meteorites], too, was a small step for man, but a giant leap in meteoritics."

The findings were published on March 29 in the journal Meteoritics & Planetary Science.

Originally posted on Space.com.

In a new study designed to test the co-creative capabilities of large language models (LLMs), internet memes created by OpenAI's GPT-4o model were, on average, rated funnier, more creative and more shareable than those created by humans, or by humans with chatbot assistance. However, when it came to the quality of top-rated memes, human-generated humor still prevailed.

The findings were uploaded Jan. 20 to the arXiv preprint server and presented at the 30th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, which took place March 24 to 27, in Cagliari, Italy.

Commenting on the results on the social network BlueSky, Ethan Mollick, professor and co-director of the generative AI lab at Wharton University of Pennsylvania, said: "I regret to announce that the meme Turing Test has been passed."

Related: Can you die from laughter?

The original Turing Test was proposed in 1950 by British mathematician Alan Turing as a benchmark for machine intelligence: if a human judge couldn’t distinguish between a human and a machine in conversation, the machine could be said to exhibit human-level intelligence.

While the study didn’t assess whether AI-generated memes were indistinguishable from those made by humans, it does raise interesting questions about how we evaluate creativity — especially as participants often rated AI-generated content more favorably.

Macheme learning

The researchers, from KTH Royal Institute of Technology, LMU Munich and TU Darmstadt, hadn't set out to demonstrate the comedic capabilities of AI. Instead, they set out to explore co-creativity, specifically how LLMs can support humans with creative tasks like joke-writing.

They identified meme creation, with its mix of cultural references, sarcasm and low-stakes performance pressure, as the perfect test case. Memes typically take the form of captioned images that riff on familiar situations or pop culture. They've become a type of shared internet shorthand, used to make jokes or respond to current events in an easily digestible and often irreverent format.

"The complexity of humor makes it a rich area for exploring the dynamics of co-creativity, as collaborators must navigate these nuances to produce content that resonates with others," the researchers wrote in the paper.

The experiment involved two parts. In the first, researchers recruited 124 participants and assigned them to one of two groups: one working alone and the other working with an AI chatbot assistant.

Participants were then given three rounds to generate captions for classic meme templates based on the topics of work, food and sports — including Fry from Futurama, Doge and Boromir (one does not simply walk into Mordor) templates. Those in the AI-assisted group could use a chatbot to brainstorm ideas but were responsible for selecting the best ideas and creating the final memes.

The human-only group created 335 memes, while 307 were produced by human-AI hybrid teams. An additional 150 memes were generated by GPT-4o for comparison.

A second group of 98 people then rated the memes on how funny, creative and shareable they were. The memes were randomized so raters didn’t know who or what had made them. Across all three categories, the AI-generated memes came out on top.

"Interestingly, memes created entirely by AI performed better than both human-only and human-AI collaborative memes in all areas on average," the researchers wrote in the paper. "However, when looking at the top-performing memes, human-created ones were better in humor, while human-AI collaborations stood out in creativity and shareability."

In other words, while the AI-generated memes scored highest on average, the memes identified as being "the funniest" were more often than not created by humans.

Content regeneration

The researchers credited the AI’s strong average scores to the fact LLMs are trained on huge volumes of internet content, making them good at mimicking broadly popular humor, but not so much at landing a real zinger of a punchline. "LLMs appeal to a broad taste in humor, but humans can be wittier still," they wrote.

The study also examined the impact of AI assistance on productivity and perceived effort. Participants working with the chatbot generated more ideas than those working alone, but this didn’t always translate to funnier content.

According to the researchers, this is because while LLMs can help with idea generation, they don’t necessarily raise the bar on creative quality. This is particularly true for humor, which the researchers said required "timing, cultural context, shared knowledge, and the ability to subvert expectations."

The researchers concluded: "While LLMs can generate humorous and contextually appropriate memes, they often face challenges in capturing nuanced cultural references and emotional subtleties inherent in human creativity. While AI can boost productivity and create content that appeals to a broad audience, human creativity remains crucial for content that connects on a deeper level."

The tonka bean tree (Dipteryx oleifera) may actually benefit from being struck by lightning, according to a new study.

Scientists discovered that these trees not only survive these electrical encounters unscathed, but the lightning damages its competitors and the parasitic vines that cling to the tonka bean trees. The researchers published their findings March 26 in the journal New Phytologist.

"We started doing this work 10 years ago, and it became really apparent that lightning kills a lot of trees, especially a lot of very big trees," study lead author Evan Gora, a forest ecologist at the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, told Live Science. "But Dipteryx oleifera consistently showed no damage," Gora said.

In tropical forests, lightning is a major cause of tree mortality — especially among the largest, oldest trees that play key roles in storing carbon and supporting biodiversity.

Understanding how lightning shapes forest structure and species composition could shed light on how resilient these ecosystems are in the face of climate change. But amid the destruction, the researchers noticed something surprising: one species seemed to be thriving.

Using a custom-built system of electric field sensors and cameras to track strikes, researchers studied nearly 100 lightning events in Panama'’s Barro Colorado Nature Monument.

Related: 'Gossiping neighbors': Plants didn't evolve to be kind to each other, study finds

To track the exact points where lightning bolts struck, the scientists developed a high-resolution detection system. An antenna array, placed throughout Central Panama, detected radio waves from lightning strikes. By analyzing the energy patterns recorded by each sensor in the array, the researchers could triangulate the strike with high accuracy.

When combined with on-the-ground surveys and drone imagery, the team could pinpoint the forest area that was struck and monitor the condition of the trees over time.

The researchers found that D. oleifera stood out as a species that consistently showed little to no damage after being struck by lightning.

To get a longer term picture of the effect of lightning strikes on tonka bean trees and their neighbors, the team analyzed decades' worth of tree plot records.

"Over those 40 years, there's a quantifiable, detectable hazard of living next to Dipteryx oleifera. [As a tree], you are substantially more likely to die than living next to any other big old large tree in that forest," Gora said.

On average, each lightning strike killed more than 2.4 tons (2 metric tons) of nearby tree biomass and nearly 80% of the lianas (parasitic vines) that infested the tonka bean' canopy.

Gora speculated that the key behind these trees' lightning resistance comes from their physical structure. Past studies suggested that the tree has high internal conductivity, enabling lightning current to flow through without building up damaging heat — like a well-insulated wire.

Because it tends to grow large — up to 130 feet (40 meters) — and live for centuries, a single tonka bean tree is estimated to be struck at least five times after reaching maturity, with each strike helping to clear out vines and competitors, opening up the canopy to help it thrive.

The researchers estimated being struck by lightning could result in a 14-fold increase in lifetime seed production, giving the species a major reproductive advantage.

Gregory Moore, a horticulturalist from the University of Melbourne who was not involved in the study, said that the findings likely apply to other species as well. "The sort of work could also apply to other tree-dominated plant communities such as woodlands or low woodlands where trees are widely separated, so nothing like a tropical forest," he said, adding that other tall trees are also likely targets of lightning strikes.

"We have long known that some trees can survive multiple lightning strikes," Moore said, pointing out that some tall trees survive Australian bush fires and end up towering over their neighbors, which makes them prime targets for lightning strikes.

"They are often referred to as stags because the top of the crown has been blown out, but they can survive for centuries after being hit by lightning," he said.

Gora and colleagues are now expanding their research to other forests in Africa and Southeast Asia to find out whether lightning benefits other species.

The yearling mammoth, nicknamed "Yana," was first unveiled in December 2024. The researchers who discovered Yana said she was the best-preserved mammoth ever found, the Associated Press reported at the time. The front part of Yana's body is almost entirely intact and looks very similar to a baby elephant.

Researchers took a closer look at Yana by performing a necropsy — the animal equivalent of an autopsy. The necropsy took several hours and was conducted in late March at the Mammoth Museum in North-Eastern Federal University in Yakutsk, according to reporting by Agence France-Presse (AFP), a French news agency, via France 24.

This necropsy "is an opportunity to look into the past of our planet," Artemiy Goncharov, head of the functional genomics and proteomics of microorganisms laboratory at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in Russia, told AFP.

Related: 'Closer than people think': Woolly mammoth 'de-extinction' is nearing reality — and we have no idea what happens next

Yana was encased in permafrost, or permanently frozen earth, for millennia until climate change thawed that permafrost and exposed her carcass. The front part of her body started to tumble down a cliff, but she was held in place by her hindquarters, which remained embedded in the earth, AFP reported.

During the necropsy, researchers spent several hours examining Yana's remains. The mammoth smelled like a "mixture of fermented earth and flesh," according to AFP's reporting. Yana's carcass was 3.9 feet (1.2 meters) tall at the shoulder and weighed almost 400 pounds (180 kilograms). Her head and trunk were intact, and the researchers were able to locate her milk tusks. These tusks fall out as the mammoth matures, just as baby teeth do in humans, AFP reported. The researchers also identified Yana's internal organs.

"We can see that many organs and tissues are very well preserved," Goncharov said. "The digestive tract is partly preserved, the stomach is preserved. There are still fragments of the intestines, in particular the colon," enabling scientists to take samples of Yana's last meal.

Researchers hope to find unique bacteria on Yana and analyze the plants and spores she consumed in life to learn more about her ancient environment and the relationship between ancient and modern microorganisms.

Researchers haven't yet determined why Yana died so young, but they know modern humans (Homo sapiens) weren't involved. Modern humans didn't arrive in Siberia until at least 30,000 years ago, some 100,000 years after Yana died.

Mammoth quiz: Test your knowledge of the ice age beasts

What it is: A flint tool with a wooden handle and birch tar

Where it is from: Öhningen, southern Germany

When it was made: 3800 to 3500 B.C.

Related: Hohle Fels water bird: The oldest depiction of a bird in the world

What it tells us about the past:

This flint tool from a Neolithic archaeological site in southern Germany provides a rare look at how prehistoric knives were actually used: with a wooden handle that made them easier to grip without injury.

The tool, which is on display at the Baden-Württemberg State Archaeological Museum (ALM), was found at a site called Wangen-Hinterhorn in Öhningen, a municipality on the border of Germany and Switzerland. Measuring just 2.9 inches (7.3 centimeters) long, the tool looks a bit like a small prehistoric Swiss Army knife. The sharp-edged flint blade was fastened to a wooden handle with birch tar, and a hole was drilled into the wood, likely so the tool could be hung.

This knife was discovered at a settlement site associated with the Pfyn culture. During the Neolithic period (4300 to 3500 B.C.), this culture spread from southern Bavaria to northern Switzerland and is well known for its pile dwellings — houses built on stilts in marshy land around the edges of lakes, rivers and wetlands.

Nearly 1,000 Alpine pile dwelling sites have been discovered to date in six countries, according to UNESCO, which added pile dwellings to its World Heritage list in 2011. Because they are located in wetlands, many of these archaeological sites have good conditions for the preservation of organic material that would normally disintegrate, like wood.

The prehistoric settlement of Wangen-Hinterhorn and its pile dwellings were first identified in the shallow water zone along Lake Constance by a farmer in 1856, but extensive excavations by archaeologists did not take place until the 1970s and 1980s.

The people of the Pfyn culture settled the area surrounding Lake Constance around 3900 B.C. They built their dwellings on stilts made from local trees and had domesticated animals and crops. However, they did not necessarily live there permanently; archaeologists have found waves of occupation over the course of a millennium. Artifacts preserved in the wetland environment suggest that the Pfyn people were innovating and experimenting with textiles and that they had also begun to manufacture copper objects.

Archaeologists have found a few other examples of wood-and-flint tools dated to the Pfyn culture. They include a flint dagger with a wood handle dated to 3000 to 2400 B.C., which is also at ALM, and a flint knife found in the 1940s that had impressions of grain seeds in the tar that held the stone tool into the wooden handle. Although the grain impressions suggest these unique objects may have been used for food processing, little else is known about their function.

It's not unusual to shed skin; humans do it, too. "But unlike us, whose skin sheds off in little flakes, snakes produce a whole new layer of skin, and the old layer of skin falls off in one big slough," said Jason Dallas, a postdoctoral researcher who studies bacterial-fungal interactions in snakes and amphibians at Middle Tennessee State University.

But why do snakes shed their skin, and why does it happen in one go?

Snake skin is composed of two main layers. The inner, softer layer — called the dermis — contains the pigments that give snakes their intricate colors and patterns. The dermis is covered in the epidermis, a tougher layer of semitransparent keratin scales.

The outer layer of human skin also contains keratin, but the structure of our skin allows it to flake off in individual scales, which are almost invisible to the naked eye. In snakes, the exterior keratinous layer forms a unit, which creates a sheath-like covering that's bound to the snake's more delicate dermis below.

Related: What are the world's deadliest snakes?

The trade-off of this hardy external layer is that it doesn't expand; it remains relatively inflexible and constricts the snake as it grows. This is one of the primary reasons snakes shed their skin: to create more room. Snakes grow more quickly when they are younger, so they also shed more in youth.

In fact, snakes' first shed happens "within a few days of hatching or being born," Daniel Kane, senior reptile keeper at the London Zoo, told Live Science in an email. By adulthood, snakes typically shed around three or four times a year, Kane said.

When a snake is almost ready to shed, it starts to develop a second fresh keratin layer atop the dermis and below the original keratin sheath. It also secretes a fluid to help loosen the old layer from the new one. As this process unfolds, the snake typically finds a rough spot to rub its head against. This creates a slit in the old skin, through which the snake can then start to slither out.

With the help of continued rubbing and muscle spasms, the snake eventually loosens its entire skin and escapes the wrinkled relic with a set of glossy new scales. A fresh shed may be up to 20% longer than the original snake, as this recently lubricated skin is "quite stretchy before it dries out and becomes brittle," Kane explained.

Once the skin is shed, the snake discards it and slithers away. Although snakes don't typically eat their skins, some other reptiles do, such as lizards and geckos, to regain lost nutrients.

Shedding is associated with big life events, such as a snake's emergence from a long hibernation, or reproduction. "They typically will shed right before they either lay their eggs or give live birth, and then they may shed again after that period," Dallas told Live Science. "So it typically is synced up with life history events in adults."

Interestingly, snakes also use shedding to deal with unwanted parasites, infections and disease, Dallas said. One common example is snake fungal disease, which poses a significant threat to snakes worldwide.

"The pathogen is able to colonize deeper tissues as well as internal organs," Donald Walker, an assistant professor of biology at Middle Tennessee State University and principal investigator of the lab where Dallas works, told Live Science. "It's thought to be able to get the eyes, and maybe even the brain, of the animal. … But it starts by colonizing the skin and feeding on keratin and lipids in snake scales." Shedding could be lifesaving in cases like this. Yet the ability to shed skin also incurs a cost. Not only is it an energy-intensive process, but the trailing skin may hinder the snake's hunting prowess by disturbing its vision. Snake eyes appear clear, but they're covered by a single, bubble-like, keratin scale.

"The transparent scale, known as the 'spectacle,' protects the snake's eyes from day-to-day scratches and abrasions as it moves headfirst through the world," Kane said. "When the snake is in the process of sloughing off its skin, vision is impaired by the cloudiness caused by the secretions used to separate the old from the new layers."

A less-mobile, sight-impaired shedding snake is typically more vulnerable to predators, too. So ideally, a snake should not be shedding too frequently.

Disease might complicate snakes' natural shedding schedules and turn this survival tactic against them — particularly in species such as the eastern massasauga rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus) in the United States, Dallas said.

"These snakes are very susceptible to the fungus that can obscure their eyes and their mouth, but also increased shedding rates can increase their risk of predation," Dallas said. "And this has caused relatively large population declines in some populations of the species."

Overwhelmingly, however, a snake's shedding ability is vital to its survival. In the wild, discarded skins can also help scientists and conservationists protect these reptiles, by offering telltale genetic fingerprints and other clues that enable them to detect threats to snake health, study population numbers and species biodiversity.

"Snake skin often contains a faint version of the pattern of the snake and the specific number and arrangement of scales, meaning it's often possible to identify a species based on a shed skin," Kane said.

Of all animals, snakes produce the most instantly recognizable shed specimens in the wild. But they share their shedding ability with all other reptiles, which, unlike their serpentine cousins, mostly release their skins in fragments. There are some exceptions, however. For example, lizards from the Abronia genus are small, dragon-like creatures that wriggle out of their skins and leave behind a perfectly intact replica, legs and all.

Snake quiz: How much do you know about the slithering reptiles?

Dell's line of high-end XPS laptops has undergone a significant makeover in the last few years, starting with the Dell XPS 13 Plus and now extending to the entire portfolio. Although Dell has now moved on, there's still plenty of appeal in the Dell XPS 13 9345 (2024), the last machine before we begin to see the streamlined "Dell, Dell Pro and Dell Pro Max" machines.

Our review configuration included high-end Qualcomm hardware fitted into an exquisitely engineered chassis, with an expansive keyboard and edgeless touchpad. As with all XPS machines, the bezels encasing the display are razor-thin, although we'll be rigorously testing the standard IPS FHD+ display to establish whether this base configuration is worth the investment — or if it might be worth upgrading to the OLED edition.

Dell XPS 13 9345 (2024) review

Dell XPS 13 9345 (2024): Design

The XPS 13 9345 (2024) retains the minimalist design of its predecessor, the XPS 13 Plus, with a high build quality thanks to the machined aluminum its chassis is constructed from. It's an exceptional and artful-looking machine, but has proven divisive due to a few features that set it apart from the crowd.

These include the lack of a defined touchpad and buttons (these are hidden beneath an exquisite glass-coated palm rest) as well as a completely gapless keyboard with a light bar row for the function keys. Both the function keys and edgeless touchpad use haptic feedback, rather than mechanical buttons, to register inputs — which fits in with the overall minimalist design. As ever, the display looks fantastic thanks to the typical narrow bezels you would expect in an XPS machine.

Although the graphite color is perhaps more in line with previous editions, we absolutely adored the clean and crisp Platinum look our review configuration was draped in. The overall look and feel neatly complement its portability and weight. At 2.72 pounds (1.24 kilograms), the FHD+ edition of the XPS 13 is fantastically light, but it's also worth mentioning that the OLED version is a shade lighter.

Similarly, its dimensions are extremely compact and make it incredibly easy to fit into your bag so you can take it on the move. However, it's worth noting its thickness is split evenly between the keyboard and screen segments, which means its 0.63-inch (15.95 millimeters) thickness isn't much greater than you might otherwise find — it just means there's only a tiny bit of space beside the keyboard for USB-C ports.

Dell XPS 9345 (2024): Display

The 13.4-inch IPS display fitted into our review configuration of the XPS 13 is its weakest feature by some distance. The 1,920 x 1,200-pixel resolution is on the lower side — rendering a pixel-per-inch ratio of just 169 — and we were unable to access the advertised refresh rate of up to 120 Hz, instead settling for an option to toggle a "variable refresh rate" on or off. While we were unable to test the OLED version of this laptop, both users and reviews by other publications have praised the quality of that display. This base configuration, however, is underwhelming in every respect.

Testing with a display calibrator showed the laptop's peak brightness is 366 nits — about in line with many options out there, but still some way off the advertised 500 nits Dell claimed this configuration could hit. Its colors, too, seemed far too oversaturated in the green space, with blues and reds underrepresented. Variation is normal and it's usually quite subtle, although it was noticeable even without the use of a calibrator. This weakness extends to coverage of the various color gamuts we keep an eye out for. Coverage of the sRGB gamut was 87.4%, a terrible result by today's standards, with many laptop displays comfortably hitting 98% or higher without much of a problem. It was a similar story for the Adobe and DCI P3 gamuts, which measure suitability for photo and video editing respectively. While you never tend to get high results in either category, these were the lowest we've seen from any machine we tested in the last 12 months.

Where we saw more impressive scores were in a very high 1,622:1 contrast level and suitably low 0.23-nits black level. Although a Delta-E color distortion reading of 0.28 on average and 1.02 maximum is excellent, it's almost negated by the poor color gamut coverage results. As such, the FHD+ version of the Dell XPS 13 is not really suitable for any image-based work.

Dell XPS 9345 (2024): Keyboard and touchpad

The flush, edge-to-edge keyboard in the XPS 13 looks incredible — but using it is a different story. The expansive key sizing and lack of any spacing between them makes logical sense (giving you more space to land your keystrokes) and it makes for a striking and stylish design choice. But it can be awkward typing with the thing, especially given the incredibly short travel distance each key has. There's also plenty of snap but not much haptic feedback — leaving touch-typing feeling a bit empty. Speaking of which, there is zero haptic feedback when you use any of the buttons on the light bar.

The borderless touchpad, integrated beneath the glass coating of the palm rest, also takes some getting used to. You might need to guesstimate where the area actually is at first (it's usually where you would expect it to be) but after that, gliding your finger across its surface to move the cursor is exceptionally smooth. Using the left and right-click functions, primarily based on haptic feedback, does leave a little to be desired. You do feel the clicking sensation, but we'd prefer much more force. And, positioning-wise, we often found ourselves having to reach further to the left than is comfortable to left-click.

Dell XPS 9345 (2024): Performance and battery

The XPS 13 is packed with high-end Qualcomm hardware including the Snapdragon X Elite (12-core) CPU, which is bundled with a Qualcomm Adreno graphics card and Hexagon NPU. This premium core was complemented in our review model with just 16 GB of RAM and a 512 GB SSD. Overall, it performs as speedily as you would expect from a machine with this hardware — although it’s slightly underwhelming on multitask performance when you rack it up against machines with the exact same specs.

Although we hit a single-threaded score of 2,467 using Geekbench 6 — the highest we have seen so far in a machine fitted with Qualcomm hardware — it scored 13,133 in the multi-threaded performance test. This falls within the typical range, but is among the slowest in the bracket. Ramping up the amount of RAM might help, but it's worth noting the likes of the HP EliteBook Ultra 14 G1q, which also used 16 GB RAM, scored 14,035 in this test.

Its graphics performance was, however, on the higher end, scoring 20,467 — a near identical result with the HP machine we just cited. It's as good as you'll get with this Snapdragon hardware, with average scores normally just under 20,000. For anything more intense than basic image or video editing, however, we'd recommend a machine with a dedicated GPU. These tend to score beyond 30,000 in this test.

The Dell XPS 13's battery life, however, was phenomenal, lasting 27 hours and 39 minutes in our battery test. It's the longest-lasting of all the laptops we tested in 2024 and so far in 2025 — and an absolutely fantastic result for anybody hoping to work on the move.

Dell XPS 9345 (2024): Ports and features

Connectivity options are near-barren in the XPS 13, with just two USB-C ports available — although you do at least get one on either side of the machine. There isn't even room for a 3.5mm headphone jack, which is a staple in most other machines. It's just as well, then, that the quad-speaker array is broadly impressive across mids and higher tones. The bass isn't quite thumping, but does punch above its weight when you consider how crammed the speakers are in a chassis as sleek as this. We'd recommend carrying a dock if you plan on frequently working with images directly from a camera.

The laptop otherwise features a 1080p camera fitted into the bezel above the screen, which is compatible with Windows Hello, as well as a fingerprint reader fitted into its power button. The inclusion of Wi-Fi 7 compatibility and Bluetooth 5.4 are also nice ticks to have, meaning you know the device is future-proofed to take advantage of the more advanced features in these wireless protocols.

Dell XPS 9345 (2024): Should I buy it?

We wanted to love the XPS 13 given how elegant and sleek it looks. The device is exquisitely engineered in terms of its physical appearance — but that doesn't mean it's a practical machine.

The invisible touchpad causes a couple of issues, while typing can be hit or miss, given the short travel distance in its keys. While its performance is great and battery life is phenomenal, the FHD+ panel in our review configuration performed too poorly for us to recommend it, especially if you're going to do anything visual. While it's just about bright enough, it lacks sharpness and the colors are askew.

We'd go so far as to recommend avoiding this model altogether unless you're opting for the higher-resolution options — which users report as being far more enjoyable to use.

If the Dell XPS 9345 (2024) isn’t for you

There are plenty of high-end Snapdragon alternatives you can opt for if you're looking for a premium and punchy laptop. The HP EliteBook Ultra 14 G1q suffers from low brightness but has much better color accuracy and performs slightly better while retaining a 26-hour-plus battery life.

If you don't mind taking a slight hit on battery life — albeit 17-hours-plus is still more than reasonable — we also loved the Microsoft Surface Laptop (7th Edition). You'll enjoy the brighter, crisper and more vibrant display alongside its top performance levels and excellent keyboard.

The hormonal shifts occurring during menopause mark the end of a woman's reproductive years and contribute to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, the most common cause of death among women globally. As estrogen levels drop, changes in cholesterol, blood pressure, inflammation and fat distribution can lead to plaque buildup in blood vessels, which is a major cause of heart disease.

Hormone therapy has long been prescribed to relieve bothersome menopausal symptoms, but research published in 2002 and 2004 raised concerns about its safety, especially regarding cardiovascular health. Those findings led to years of confusion and debate. Although hormone therapy was also previously prescribed to prevent chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, medical guidelines today no longer recommend it for this purpose based on this prior research.

As a cardiologist studying the prevention of heart disease in menopausal women, I investigate how hormone changes affect heart health and how treatments can be improved to lower cardiovascular disease risk. As research continues to shed light on menopause and heart health, it is becoming increasingly clear that hormone therapy used to treat menopausal symptoms in younger, healthy women is not only safe for the heart but may even offer some cardiovascular benefits.

The estrogen-cardiovascular link explained

Menopause, defined as 12 consecutive months without a menstrual period, marks the end of a woman's reproductive years and typically occurs between ages 45 to 55. The transition leading to menopause, known as perimenopause, can last several years and is characterized by fluctuating levels of hormones, including estrogen and progesterone. These hormonal changes often cause symptoms such as hot flashes, night sweats and sleep disturbances.

What's less widely known is that menopause and lack of estrogen also drive changes to the heart and blood vessels. Estrogen has protective effects on the cardiovascular system, and its decline can lead to increased blood vessel stiffness, resulting in high blood pressure, higher cholesterol levels, more inflammation, and shifts in fat deposition, which lead to a greater risk of heart disease.

Related: Women are at higher risk of dying from heart disease. Here's why.

One reason for this is that estrogen helps keep blood vessels flexible and supports the production of nitric oxide, a molecule that allows vessels to relax and maintain healthy blood flow. Estrogen also influences how the body processes cholesterol, helping to make changes to cholesterol to reduce plaque buildup in artery walls. When estrogen levels drop during menopause, these protective factors diminish, making arteries more susceptible to stiffening, plaque buildup and inflammation. These biological processes raise the risk of long-term cardiovascular disease.

Hormone therapy's rocky history

Hormone therapy using estrogen alone or a combination of estrogen and progestin, a synthetic derivative of progesterone, restores estrogen levels and effectively treats menopausal symptoms. It comes with some risks, though, which depend on factors such as a woman's age, time since menopause began and overall health.

The medical community's view on hormone therapy has shifted dramatically over the years. In the 1970s, hormone therapy was widely promoted as a fountain of youth and was prescribed commonly to prevent age-related chronic diseases such as heart attack and stroke.

Then, in the early 2000s, the Women's Health Initiative, one of the largest clinical trials testing oral hormone therapy in women, found an increased risk of stroke and breast cancer in those who used hormone therapy. Doctors abruptly stopped prescribing it, and medical guidelines shifted their recommendations, saying the treatment had more risks than benefits.

However, additional analyses of data from the Women's Health Initiative along with results from further studies pointed researchers to a theory called the timing hypothesis, which suggests that the risks and benefits of hormone therapy depend on when treatment begins.

According to the timing hypothesis, hormone therapy may lower the risk of heart disease in menopausal women who start it before age 60 and within 10 years of menopause onset, and who are otherwise in good health. Women who begin hormone therapy much later — after age 60 or more than 10 years after menopause onset — may instead face increased cardiovascular risks.

A personalized approach to treating menopause

My research supports this idea. In a 2019 study, my colleagues and I analyzed data from 31 clinical trials of women who started hormone therapy at different ages, and we found that women under 60 who used hormone therapy tend to live longer and are less likely to die from heart disease. However, our study did find an increased risk in blood clots and stroke with hormone therapy. This risk was present in menopausal women under 60 years old and continuously increased as women got older.

Additionally, research has shown that different methods of taking hormone therapy may affect its impact on cardiovascular health. For example, using estrogen patches worn on the skin may have a lower risk of blood clots compared with hormone therapy taken as a pill.

This is due to a phenomenon called first pass metabolism. Hormone therapy taken by mouth is processed by the liver before entering the bloodstream. The liver produces clotting factors, which raises the risk of blood clots. In contrast, estrogen patches deliver the medication into the bloodstream, bypassing the liver, and do not increase this risk.

Overall, we found that women who took oral hormone therapy tended to have lower cholesterol levels, and this effect persisted over many years. For healthy younger women who are within 10 years of menopause onset, hormone therapy is safe from a cardiovascular standpoint and may even provide benefit.

However, hormone therapy is still not recommended for women with existing heart disease, history of blood clots, prior stroke, gallbladder disease or certain types of cancers.

Medical experts now recognize that blanket recommendations for or against hormone therapy are not appropriate. Instead, treatment decisions should be individualized, considering factors such as age, time since menopause began and overall health.

If you are considering hormone therapy, discussing risks and benefits with your health care provider is vital.

Here are questions to consider asking your health care provider:

• Am I a good candidate for hormone therapy based on my health history?
• What are the risks and benefits of starting hormone therapy at my age?
• What type of hormone therapy, such as pills, patches or gel, is safest and most effective for me?
• How long should I stay on hormone therapy?

This edited article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

A dramatic drone video shows Isar Aerospace's first orbital launch attempt, which ended with a fiery crash into the frigid sea about 30 seconds after liftoff.

The Germany company's first Spectrum rocket lifted off Sunday morning (March 30) from Andøya Spaceport in northern Norway on the first-ever orbital launch attempt from European soil.

Spectrum cleared the tower but suffered an anomaly shortly thereafter. The rocket flipped over and slammed into the ocean near the pad, sending an orange-tinted cloud high into a clear Arctic sky, as the video shows.

The launch pad and surrounding infrastructure appear to have escaped damage, according to Isar Aerospace. The company accentuated the positive about Spectrum's debut, saying the 95-foot-tall (28 meters) rocket performed quite well overall.

Related: Dying SpaceX rocket triggers giant spiral of light above UK and Europe during secret mission

"Our first test flight met all our expectations, achieving a great success," Isar Aerospace CEO and Co-founder Daniel Metzler said in an emailed statement. "We had a clean liftoff, 30 seconds of flight and even got to validate our flight termination system."

European space officials were similarly sanguine.

"A test flight is exactly that: a test to gather data, learn and improve," European Space Agency Director General Josef Aschbacher said in a different statement on Sunday.

"Everything Isar Aerospace achieved today is remarkable, and they will have lots of data to analyze," he added. "I applaud the teams for getting this far, and I am confident that we will see the next Spectrum on the launch pad ready for test flight 2 liftoff soon."

Originally posted on Space.com.

With spring upon us, now is a great time to get closer to nature with a set of bird-watching binoculars. It's an ideal time to spot lots of nesting birds, with spring being the ideal time for many birds to lay eggs so their young can be born in the warmer months.

The best binoculars are great for general use, but here we're focusing on the best binoculars for bird-watching. In choosing our recommendations, we've considered things like lens quality, portability, comfort and zoom. You'll find options suited for youngsters and beginners, with the best binoculars for kids typically being more lightweight and affordable, alongside more premium options for experienced nature observers.

The quick list

Best binoculars for bird-watching 2025

Best overall bird-watching binoculars

As you’d expect from a Leica product, build quality, resilience and durability sit at the heart of the Leica Noctivid 10x42 binoculars, but so does sublime lens and image quality. After more than a century of expertise in optical design, these new-generation Leica binoculars feel stylish and elegant — providing you're prepared to pay a premium.

The view through these binoculars is crisp, bright and wide, and brightness is especially excellent, even in dull, overcast and misty conditions. The color delivery is flat and slightly cooler than we were expecting, but the field of view is well corrected, with special glass elements used to combat any appearance of color fringing and chromatic aberration at the edge of the frame. In fact, in our Leica Noctivid 10x42 review, we said these may be the only binoculars we've ever tested to have no signs of discernible chromatic aberration. The result is a super high-definition image with an outstanding level of detail.

There’s a premium feel to these binoculars that established bird-watchers will appreciate, especially when it comes to capturing targets in flight. The focus feels light and smooth, and the large eyepieces are easy to fit to different viewing styles. They're coated with a patented material that makes them durable and hard-wearing, and of course they're waterproof and nitrogen-filled to prevent fogging. Despite their small size, they feel weighty in the hand, but the grippy outer shell ensures they always feel safe and secure.

• Read our full Leica Noctivid 10x42 review for more information.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best generalist bird-watching binoculars

The Nikon Monarch HG 10x42 binoculars offer a sleek design with a rubber-armored coating covering the strong magnesium alloy body, making them durable and easy to grip, especially in cold or rainy weather. Tthey’re also waterproof and fog-proof, ensuring clear vision in all conditions. It's what you'd expect to get from a premium set of binoculars, and thankfully, the Monarch HG 10x42 doesn't disappoint.

The Monarch HG 10x42 binoculars boast extra-low dispersion (ED) glass, which reduces chromatic aberration and enhances color accuracy. They feature a locking diopter ring, which reduces the risk of defocusing when not looking through them, and a very smooth focusing wheel makes finding your focus spot nice and easy to begin with.

There are some nice extra features, too, like a padded neck strap, suctioned eye cups and an included premium carry bag. Everything about these binoculars feels premium: They might be expensive, but you know you're getting your money's worth right out of the box.

Most importantly, the views you'll get through these binoculars are beautiful. As we said in our Nikon Monarch HG 10x42 review, you'll get edge-to-edge sharpness through each eye, and there's barely any perceivable chromatic aberration to speak of.

The Monarch HGs feature a wide field of view (394 ft at 1000 yds), making it easy to track fast-moving birds. They’re comfortable to wear for long periods, helped by the fact they're rather light and compact. At only 1.5 lbs, they're also easy to carry around without weighing you down.

• Our Nikon Monarch HG 10x42 review has more information about these binoculars.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best low-light bird-watching binoculars

The Zeiss Victory SF 8x42 binoculars are eye-wateringly expensive. But with a premium price tag comes a seriously premium product. You know you're getting something good with a Zeiss product, and the Victory SF 8x42 binoculars don't disappoint. If you can afford these, they're among the best binoculars for bird-watching you can buy.

The Victory SF 8x42s offer an ergonomic design with a unique SmartFocus concept, allowing easy and precise adjustments. These binoculars also have something of a unique design, which allows for better prolonged use as they’re lighter and feel more agile to use than some other similarly-priced models — although we feel that their design might not be to everyone's tastes. Introduced more than 10 years ago, earlier models did suffer from some build quality issues, but these have since been ironed out by Zeiss.

The Ultra-FL lens system provides unparalleled brightness and sharpness, which makes these models perfect for low-light conditions — ideal if you want to try and catch a glimpse of a nocturnal bird just after sunset. The focuser action is ultra-precise and accurate, and the lack of any sort of chromatic aberration is especially impressive, with only the slightest fringing visible at the outer edges of the frame.

The binoculars feature a wide field of view (444 ft at 1,000 yards), helping you spot birds quickly. In day-to-day use, the long lenses feel a little large and cumbersome, but you soon get used to them.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best premium bird-watching binoculars

All binoculars in the Swarovski EL series offer an open-bridge design, superior handling, comfort and premium glass, and of course, this EL 8.5x42 variation is no different. These premium binoculars are seriously high quality, made with magnesium housing that feels like it offers serious durability without adding too much excessive weight.

We think these binoculars are very stylish looking, too, thanks to their natural green coloring (great for staying camouflaged) and the Swarovski Optik hallmark emblazoned above one eye cup. It's a nice little touch without being too over-the-top and flashy.

The Swarovski EL 8.5x42 binoculars deliver exceptional clarity thanks to their fluoride-containing HD lenses that minimize color fringing. As you’d expect from a manufacturer with a long history of exemplary glass cutting, there’s also a huge level of brightness and crispness that’s hard to match elsewhere. There’s excellent close focusing up to 1.5 m, too, along with edge-to-edge sharpness that makes looking through these binoculars a delight.

With 8.5x magnification, the Swarovski EL 8.5x42s possess a fair bit of power in terms of magnification for distance viewing, which may set them apart from other binoculars in the same price bracket — it's a nice compromise without needing to go up to 10x magnification. But ultimately, it’s in the brightness and clarity of the image that these binoculars really begin to show a marked difference from the competition.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best budget bird-watching binoculars

The Celestron Nature DX 12x56 binoculars aren't the smallest or lightest on this list, but given they have the highest magnification, that's to be expected. That 12x magnification is great, and makes bird-watching a pleasure, especially for newcomers. Their largest objective lenses — 56mm — make them ideal for using in low light, too, so if you want to spot nocturnal birds after twilight, these are a great choice.

Despite being bulky, we like the design of the Celestron Nature DX 12x56 binoculars. Their natural green tone helps you blend into your surroundings, and the rubber grip means they always feel secure in your hand. They can get heavy after long periods of use, so tripod-mounting them is an option if you need to give your arms a rest — although you will need to purchase an adapter to be able to do so.

As we discussed in our Celestron Nature DX 12x56 review, you'll get clear and detailed images through these binoculars thanks to their BaK-4 glass. We did, however, notice a bit of chromatic aberration in high-contrast images, but given the price point of the binoculars it's not too concerning. While the binoculars aren't quite as sharp as we'd have liked, images are bright and full.

The Celestron Nature DX 12x56 binoculars are waterproof, so you don't have to worry about getting caught out in a bit of rain. The lenses are also multi-coated to protect against ghosting and flares.

• Read our full Celestron Nature DX 12x56 review for more information.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best mid-range bird-watching binoculars

A neck strap obviously isn't the be-all and end-all of a good pair of binoculars, but the strap supplied with the Celestron Regal ED 10x42 binoculars is one of the most comfortable we've ever used. That sort of extra touch is what makes the Celestron Regal ED range feel like a premium product, even though the price tag of these binoculars puts them well under most of their competition.

In our Celestron Regal ED 10x42 binoculars review, we poured a lot of praise onto the optics. A whole host of optical technologies, including BaK-4 glass and field-flattening tech, ensure that these binoculars consistently offer some of the best views around. You'll get a seriously impressive field of view with no distortion, and the image is sharp from edge to edge. And even when looking at high-contrast images — like dark tree branches against a bright sky — we noted minimal chromatic aberration.

A minimal nitpick is the fact that the focus wheel of the Celestron Regal ED 10x42 binoculars is a little loose. We've found it easy to knock accidentally, which means needing to find your focus point again. It's a minor issue, and could be something specific to our review unit, but it's worth bearing in mind.

Still, given the price point of these binoculars, it's hard to mind too much. You'll only get better optics and performance if you pay four figures or more: At this price point, you'll struggle to find anything more impressive.

• Our in-depth Celestron Regal ED 10x42 binoculars review has more information.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best compact bird-watching binoculars

Coming from a renowned brand, you know you're buying a good product when it comes to the Olympus 8x42 Pro binoculars. With a mid-range price point, they aren't going to quite rival the most expensive binoculars on our list in terms of performance and build quality, but they represent a great choice for anyone with a modest budget. This lightweight and compact set of binoculars is perfect for carrying around and traveling with.

In our Olympus 8x42 Pro review, we were particularly impressed with the build quality given their price. Despite being lightweight, the binoculars feel solid and well made, and they sport a rubberized outer texture which ensures they feel secure in your hands. They are nitrogen-filled to prevent fogging, and they're also waterproof, meaning you don't have to worry too much about them getting wet.

Since these are part of Olympus's Pro range of binoculars, they come with non-coated high-performance Zuiko optics and ED lenses — the same as you'll find in Olympus's camera range. It results in fantastic light transmission, far better than you'd expect given their class. Images are also sharp and clear all the way to the edge of the frame.

As a nice bonus, you'll also get an impressive 15-year warranty when you buy the Olympus 8x42 Pro binoculars, giving you peace of mind over any faults that might appear over their lifespan.

• Read our Olympus 8x42 Pro review for the full lowdown.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best bird-watching binoculars with image stabilization

It's hard to put into words how great using a pair of image-stabilized binoculars is until you've actually tried it. For bird-watching, it can be game-changing, allowing you to get closer to your subjects than ever, with a beautifully crisp, clear and, most importantly, stable image.

These binoculars absolutely shine when it comes to image quality, and in our Canon 10x32 IS review, we described them as being among the best binoculars we've ever used. The lenses come with a Super Spectra coating which goes a long way to reduce ghosting and flaring, and a choice of two different image stabilization (IS) modes allows you to stabilize either on a static object or a moving subject, like a bird in flight.

We've even used them at night to great success, which is surprising given their fairly small objective lens diameter. There is one major downside to the Canon 10x32 IS, however. Frustratingly, there is no nitrogen purging here, something we'd absolutely expect given the price point of these binoculars. It means your lenses are likely to fog up as you move between hot and cold locations — particularly frustrating when you're first leaving the house early in a morning.

We've also encountered a fair bit of chromatic aberration while using these binoculars — although we do feel it's perhaps more visible given just how bright and clear they are.

• Read our full Canon 10x32 IS review for more information.

• Back to the top ⤴

Best compact IS binoculars for bird-watching

The Nikon Stabilized 10x25 binoculars are so new that we're still waiting to test them. Early indications suggest that these are excellent compact binoculars, however, with game-changing Image Stabilization in an impossibly small body. So small, in fact, that these binoculars weigh just 14.3 oz — half of what some other binoculars on this list weigh.

Despite being so small and lightweight, though, the Stabilized 10x25 binoculars feel seriously sturdy and robust. They're great quality, and come with everything you'd expect in the box, including a neck strap and protective eye cups.

Obviously, Image Stabilization is the real selling factor on the Nikon Stabilized 10x25 binoculars. With Canon's IS range being the only real player in the IS field, it's nice to finally have another competitor to take seriously.

The IS here works very well, with a button on top of the binoculars activating it instantly. The contrast between using it and not using it is like night and day, and it makes viewing birds, whether still or in motion, a much more pleasant experience. If you accidentally leave IS switched on, it'll automatically shut off after 60 minutes so as to not eat up your battery.

One thing to keep in mind with the Nikon Stabilized 10x25 binoculars, though, is their very small eye relief. If you wear glasses this may be an issue, but it's true of most compact binoculars. It's often a trade-off between size and comfort, so you'll need to decide what's most important.

We'll have a full review of the Nikon Stabilized 10x25 soon.

• Back to the top ⤴

Comparison

Frequently Asked Questions

How we tested the best binoculars for bird-watching

Our binoculars are reviewed either by in-house experts or by freelance writers with extensive experience in using and reviewing binoculars. Our reviewers will have used and reviewed dozens, if not hundreds, of sets of binoculars, giving them a very strong view on features that do and don't make for a good pair of binoculars.

We thoroughly test each pair of binoculars we review, assessing numerous factors including their build quality, optics, features and price. We'll spend several weeks with a pair of binoculars before we write up our review, using them in real-world situations. For binoculars intended for bird-watching, that's the primary activity we will use them for in a range of different locations — whether that's songbirds, birds of prey, birds in safari parks, small birds perched in a backyard, high up in forests and more. For more generalist binoculars, we may use them in other situations, too, such as general nature watching, stargazing or even events-watching.

During the review process, we will use binoculars as if we were using them naturally in our day-to-day work and lives, testing how well they function in normal use. We'll carefully check for things like chromatic aberration and other image defects, and see how well they can handle bright and high-contrast situations. If binoculars are waterproof or water-resistant, we'll also test them within their given limits.

Ultimately, we'll consider the price of a pair of binoculars and assess whether it's justified, and who the intended user might be. The price may not affect our final verdict, but like all factors of an item, it's something we will take into consideration.

The viruses that cause avian influenza are potential threats to global health. Recent animal outbreaks from a subtype called H5N1 have been especially troubling to scientists. Although human infections from H5N1 have been relatively rare, there have been a little more than 900 known cases globally since 2003 — nearly 50% of these cases have been fatal — a mortality rate about 20 times higher than that of the 1918 flu pandemic. If the worst of these rare infections ever became common among people, the results could be devastating.

Approaching potential disease threats from an anthropological perspective, my colleagues and I recently published a book called "Emerging Infections: Three Epidemiological Transitions from Prehistory to the Present" to examine the ways human behaviors have shaped the evolution of infectious diseases, beginning with their first major emergence in the Neolithic period and continuing for 10,000 years to the present day.

Related: How to avoid bird flu

Viewed from this deep time perspective, it becomes evident that H5N1 is displaying a common pattern of stepwise invasion from animal to human populations. Like many emerging viruses, H5N1 is making incremental evolutionary changes that could allow it to transmit between people. The periods between these evolutionary steps present opportunities to slow this process and possibly avert a global disaster.

Spillover and viral chatter

When a disease-causing pathogen such as a flu virus is already adapted to infect a particular animal species, it may eventually evolve the ability to infect a new species, such as humans, through a process called spillover.

Spillover is a tricky enterprise. To be successful, the pathogen must have the right set of molecular "keys" compatible with the host's molecular "locks" so it can break in and out of host cells and hijack their replication machinery. Because these locks often vary between species, the pathogen may have to try many different keys before it can infect an entirely new host species. For instance, the keys a virus successfully uses to infect chickens and ducks may not work on cattle and humans. And because new keys can be made only through random mutation, the odds of obtaining all the right ones are very slim.

Given these evolutionary challenges, it is not surprising that pathogens often get stuck partway into the spillover process. A new variant of the pathogen might be transmissible from an animal only to a person who is either more susceptible due to preexisting illness or more likely to be infected because of extended exposure to the pathogen.

Even then, the pathogen might not be able to break out of its human host and transmit to another person. This is the current situation with H5N1. For the past year, there have been many animal outbreaks in a variety of wild and domestic animals, especially among birds and cattle. But there have also been a small number of human cases, most of which have occurred among poultry and dairy workers who worked closely with large numbers of infected animals.

Epidemiologists call this situation viral chatter: when human infections occur only in small, sporadic outbreaks that appear like the chattering signals of coded radio communications — tiny bursts of unclear information that may add up to a very ominous message. In the case of viral chatter, the message would be a human pandemic.

Sporadic, individual cases of H5N1 among people suggest that human-to-human transmission may likely occur at some point. But even so, no one knows how long or how many steps it would take for this to happen.

Influenza viruses evolve rapidly. This is partly because two or more flu varieties can infect the same host simultaneously, allowing them to reshuffle their genetic material with one another to produce entirely new varieties.

These reshuffling events are more likely to occur when there is a diverse range of host species. So it is particularly concerning that H5N1 is known to have infected at least 450 different animal species. It may not be long before the viral chatter gives way to larger human epidemics.

Reshaping the trajectory

The good news is that people can take basic measures to slow down the evolution of H5N1 and potentially reduce the lethality of avian influenza should it ever become a common human infection. But governments and businesses will need to act.

People can start by taking better care of food animals. The total weight of the world's poultry is greater than all wild bird species combined. So it is not surprising that the geography of most H5N1 outbreaks track more closely with large-scale housing and international transfers of live poultry than with the nesting and migration patterns of wild aquatic birds. Reducing these agricultural practices could help curb the evolution and spread of H5N1.

People can also take better care of themselves. At the individual level, most people can vaccinate against the common, seasonal influenza viruses that circulate every year. At first glance this practice may not seem connected to the emergence of avian influenza. But in addition to preventing seasonal illness, vaccination against common human varieties of the virus will reduce the odds of it mixing with avian varieties and giving them the traits they need for human-to-human transmission.

At the population level, societies can work together to improve nutrition and sanitation in the world's poorest populations. History has shown that better nutrition increases overall resistance to new infections, and better sanitation reduces how much and how often people are exposed to new pathogens. And in today's interconnected world, the disease problems of any society will eventually spread to every society.

For more than 10,000 years, human behaviors have shaped the evolutionary trajectories of infectious diseases. Knowing this, people can reshape these trajectories for the better.

This edited article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Although it packs a punch, the Redmi Watch 5 is best suited to those looking for a budget smartwatch that's easy to use without any frills. Its layout is simple and it's intuitive to use, while the visual display helps the user to interpret their data. Accuracy was generally good during the various workout modes we tested, and for a budget smartwatch it performed exceptionally well, although we did find the accuracy of the stats varied depending on what app we used.

Overall, the Redmi Watch 5 is a great purchase for anyone looking for a budget smartwatch that looks stylish, is comfortable to wear and has a long battery life. It may make the cut as one of the best budget fitness trackers we've tested.

Redmi Watch 5 review

Redmi Watch 5: Design

• Colorful display visible in bright daylight
• Responsive touchscreen (when not in rain)
• Uncomfortable strap

The Redmi Watch 5 has a good-sized AMOLED display screen measuring 2 inches (5 centimeters) across, with a thin 2 mm bezel. The enlarged screen offers enhanced brightness, which when using the watch outdoors on a brighter day ensured we could see the screen clearly and monitor our workouts without a hitch. It even performed well underwater in the swimming pool, with the display clearly visible during our swims.

The touchscreen is reasonably responsive, though with a few drops of water on it, it can become a little less so, just like a mobile phone screen. The crown can be used as an alternative to access the various screens, moving between the widgets and apps. But the touchscreen is required to click on the apps and workout modes, so it can be a little annoying when trying to begin a workout, for example.

When worn for weeks on end, the screen picked up no scratches and the rubber strap still looks brand new. It can tend to attract a little bit of dust but nothing major. All-in-all, a reliable and durable design.

We particularly liked the layout and colors of the apps and the fact you had a choice as to how to display the apps: either with labels or without, or in a list format for those who are less visual.

There are also various clock faces you can choose from to personalise your watch, as well as the ability to customise the widgets that will display when you pull up or down from the top of the screen, depending on what menu you are on. This allows the user to see the most relevant stats to them at a quick glance throughout the day. The Redmi Watch 5 is versatile in its design while also being simple to use.

We also enjoyed the cycles app, which allowed us to log when our menstrual cycles were due. It marked out our ovulation period, and the app on your phone allows you to monitor your symptoms and mood. It was only a little extra thing but this was more useful than we first realised.

However, two things let the design down: The strap and the charging cable.

The watch was uncomfortable to put on, as the end of the strap tucks underneath the rest of the strap to keep the tail end from sticking out. This is a great design in theory but in the real world, it means that the tail end of the strap pinches against the skin as you tuck it under. If you do not do the strap up tight enough, the watch easily falls too low on the wrist so it must be done up fairly tight to get accurate readings. This then causes a problem in getting the tail end of the strap to tuck under without it catching the skin. Once on, the watch was generally comfortable to wear.

The charging cable is very short, making placement during charging a little annoying. It is also USB, meaning we couldn't easily charge it from our Mac, which would have been handy with such a short cable. Furthermore, the charging connection felt dodgy, so we found ourselves having to charge the watch with the screen on a surface, which felt a little odd.

Redmi Watch 5: Performance

• Relatively accurate stats
• Excellent battery life
• Intuitive layout

The Redmi Watch 5 was intuitive to use, making it easy to start and stop workouts without a fuss. It also has auto-detect, so the watch will nudge you if it thinks you're working out and have forgotten to turn a workout mode on.

To start a workout, you simply select the workout mode you want, press "Go" and it begins measuring your workout. To pause a workout, swipe left and press pause. You can also pause a workout by pressing the crown. To end a workout, you swipe left and press and hold the stop button or continue holding the crown. If you slide right while on a workout, you can start and stop the audio you are listening to.

There are hundreds of workout modes to choose from, meaning you can capture almost any type of workout. Plus, the versatility of having the crown control some aspects, such as pausing and ending your workout, was a bonus to some extent, especially after swimming or in the rain when the screen became less responsive.

With a battery life of 24 days, the Redmi Watch 5 performed really well on this front, with us only needing to charge it twice during the testing period. When we did need to do so, it was full within the hour from a reasonably low battery level, although not completely flat.

We found the Redmi Watch 5 to be relatively accurate in capturing our health stats. To check its accuracy, we measured our own BPM and checked the watch to see if these numbers were close. Although it wasn't spot-on, the numbers were close on multiple occasions, leading us to believe the watch was pretty accurate. The tracking captured our walking routes and kilometers covered accurately. The one thing we couldn't check for accuracy was the calorie counter, although when compared to other fitness watches worn at the same time, the calorie counts were similar.

The extra features on the Redmi Watch 5 were fun to use for monitoring our health. We enjoyed checking our stress levels throughout the day, although this number didn't appear to change much. This seemed odd, as sometimes we could feel we were more stressed yet the result still came back as mild. We would advise using this function with caution, but it is a fun addition.

We also enjoyed the breathing exercises, which are based on yoga. These were great to use when needing to take a short break, helping to reduce the stress we felt. There is also all-day monitoring of BPM and blood oxygen levels, which, again, is a fun little extra to monitor how you feel throughout the day.

If you're looking to monitor your sleep, the Redmi Watch 5 did a good job at measuring our sleep length and sleep cycles. We used a secondary app to capture our sleep length and cycles and this closely matched the readings from the Redmi Watch 5, which actually may have been more accurate. Your BPM is also monitored during your sleep, which is an interesting addition to reflect on.

The Redmi Watch 5 has water resistance of up to 5ATM, so it is safe to use in the pool. When used in the swimming pool, it captured our lengths, swim style, calories burnt, number of strokes and swimming pace, among other things. The lengths and swim style were accurate, although it's hard to tell the accuracy of the other stats and, when compared to another fitness watch worn at the same time, there were discrepancies between the two.

The Redmi gives you a SWOLF score, if that's something you are keen to have from a watch. The results can be viewed either on the watch itself or on the app, with visuals and graphs available on both to help you make sense of the data.

When you end your swimming session, the watch automatically clears the water but if you have the sound on, it will make a loud beeping noise in the changing rooms, so be prepared for that. There are many water workout modes you can choose from but we only tested this watch in a swimming pool.

Redmi Watch 5: Functionality

• Strap pinched the skin
• Crown gets caught on tighter clothing
• Interesting graphics

As we mentioned earlier, the pinching of the skin when putting the strap on wasn't very welcome but once on, the watch was comfortable to wear. We didn't notice it while sleeping and barely noticed it during the day, apart from when the crown caught on our tops. As we tested this watch during the winter months, we had to wear long-sleeved tops and we found the crown caught on them easily. This was frustrating mid-workout, causing vibrations and workouts to be paused by accident. It also felt a little uncomfortable during our yoga sessions, as our arms and hands moved in many different directions, giving the crown ample opportunity to catch.

The Redmi Watch 5 generally performed well and met our expectations for a budget fitness watch. It covered various stats depending on the workout and offered us our training load information as well as recovery time. The stats were pretty accurate for the bits that really matter when it comes to workouts, although functions like the stress measure are a little more questionable.

We particularly liked the use of colorful graphics to summarize our workout journeys, helping us to make sense of our performances.

Overall, this watch performed well but would probably suit those who aren't too caught up on complete accuracy and just want a way to log their workouts with ease. It would suit someone who is interested in knowing how they're performing but also isn't too concerned if their BPM is slightly inaccurate, for example.

With the added apps such as the sleep and stress monitoring, it's a good choice for someone looking at a more holistic view of health rather than merely capturing individual workouts. Generally, we felt the watch performed well in most workouts, capturing the important details and, with a battery life of around 24 days, it's not to be grumbled at for the price.

Should you buy the Redmi Watch 5?

We loved testing the Redmi Watch 5 and can't believe how well it performed for the price point. While the stats were generally accurate, there were some discrepancies so it would suit those who aren't so concerned with complete accuracy. It's perfect for someone who wants to track their fitness but isn't looking for lots of fancy extras.

It's a simple design with no added complications, so those new to working out or fitness tracking may enjoy this smartwatch more than, say, athletes or serious runners. That doesn't mean there isn't a lot of data, though — each workout supplies adequate data on your performance and a good idea of your fitness level. Plus, there are plenty of additional apps like the stress monitor (though this may not be very accurate).

Overall, you can't go wrong with the Redmi Watch 5. It feels more high-end than it is in terms of design and performance, helping you gain a more holistic view of your overall health.

If this product isn't for you

It may be that the Redmi Watch 5 isn't for you and you'd prefer something from a better-known brand. If that's the case, the Garmin Vivosmart 5 is a great option, coming in at a similar price point to the Redmi Watch 5.

There is also the Fitbit Inspire 3, which offers a slender and lightweight design but a slightly shorter battery life than the Redmi.

All exhibit instances of bifurcation, in which a river splits into branches that continue downstream. But unlike typical bifurcations, these examples do not return to the main waterway after branching off.

South America's Casiquiare River, for example, is a navigable waterway that connects the continent's two largest watersheds, the Orinoco and Amazon basins, by acting as a distributary of the former and a tributary of the latter. It's "the hydrologic equivalent of a wormhole between two galaxies," the authors write. The Casiquiare splits from the Orinoco River and meanders through lush, nearly flat rainforests to join the Rio Negro and, ultimately, the Amazon River. The study's authors point out that the slight slope (less than 0.009%) is enough to send large volumes of water down the river and that this unusual instance results from an incomplete river capture. They note that understanding of the Casiquiare is still evolving.

Related: Ocean's 'heart' is slowing down — and it will affect the entire planet's circulation

Dutch colonists first mapped the remote Wayambo River in Suriname in 1717. This river can flow either east or west, depending on rainfall and human modifications of flow using locks. It is also near gold and bauxite mining as well as oil production sites, and its two-way flow makes predicting the spread of pollutants difficult.

Of all the rivers they reviewed, the researchers described the Echimamish River, high in the Canadian wilderness, as the "most baffling." Its name means "water that flows both ways" in Cree. The river connects the Hayes River and the Nelson River, and by some accounts, the Echimamish flows outward from its middle toward both larger rivers. However, its course is flat and punctuated by beaver dams, leading to uncertainty, even today, about the direction of its flow and exactly where the direction shifts.

The authors also explored six other strange waterways, including lakes with two outlets and creeks that drain to both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In doing so, they highlighted how much there is still to learn about how our world's waters work.

This article was originally published on Eos.org. Read the original article.

Existing quantum architecture offers only limited communication between separate quantum processing units (QPUs). Such communication is "point-to-point," meaning that information has to be transferred in a chain across several nodes before reaching its destination. This increases the possibility of exposing the quantum information to noise and makes it more likely for errors to occur.

However, the new device developed by MIT scientists allows for "all-to-all" communication, so that all processors in a single network can communicate directly with any other processor. The researchers outlined their "remote entanglement" approach in a new study published March 21 in the journal Nature Physics.

Remote entanglement is a state where two particles share the same state, and changes to one automatically affect the other. The distance between the two can be vast, with no currently known limit.

In testing, the researchers connected two quantum processors by way of modules, each comprising four qubits. Some of the qubits in each module were tasked with sending photons, light particles that can be used to transmit quantum data, while others were assigned to storing data.

The modules were linked together with a superconducting wire called a waveguide, with the modules serving as an interface between the larger quantum processors and the waveguide. The scientists said that any number of processors could be connected in this way, creating a highly scalable network.

The researchers then used microwave pulses to spark an individual qubit into emitting photons in either direction across the waveguide.

Related: China achieves quantum supremacy claim with new chip 1 quadrillion times faster than the most powerful supercomputers

"Pitching and catching photons enables us to create a ‘quantum interconnect’ between nonlocal quantum processors, and with quantum interconnects comes remote entanglement,” said senior author of the study William D. Oliver, Associate Director of the Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT, in a statement.

Photonic distortion

Entanglement is a state where two particles become connected and share information, even at vast distances. A change in one entangled particle will immediately affect its partner. It’s a critical phenomenon for quantum computing because it allows qubits to be correlated and act as a single system. This, in turn, lets us create algorithms that are impossible with classical computers.

However, just moving photons back and forth between modules doesn’t automatically create entanglement. To achieve that, the team had to specially prepare both the qubits and the photon, so that after being transferred, the modules shared a single photon.

To force the two modules to share the same photon, they had to interrupt photon emission pulses at the halfway point. This essentially meant that half of the photon was absorbed on the receiving end while half was retained by the emitting module.

The problem with this method is that the photon becomes distorted while traveling across the waveguide, which can impact absorption and interrupt entanglement. To overcome this flaw in the architecture, the team had to distort the photons to encourage maximum absorption. By distorting photons prior to transmission, they were able to raise absorption levels to 60%, enough to ensure entanglement.

The work is broadly applicable to practical quantum computing applications, according to lead author of the study Aziza Almanakly, an electrical engineering and computer science graduate student.

"In principle, our remote entanglement generation protocol can also be expanded to other kinds of quantum computers and bigger quantum internet systems," Almanakly said.

Researchers made the finding in Sudan after analzying the remains of 30 people (14 females and 16 males) buried in a Nubian Bronze Age cemetery. One, an elite woman who was around 50 years old when she died, had the clearest marks indicative of head straps.

This is the "first clear evidence that women were using head straps — tumplines — to carry loads as early as the Bronze Age," study lead author Jared Carballo-Pérez, a researcher of bioarchaeology at the Autonomous University of Barcelona, told Live Science in an email.

Carballo-Pérez and his colleagues investigated at the archaeological site of Abu Fatima which consists of a cemetery that is located by the third cataract of the Nile River, in what was once the ancient kingdom of Kush.

After analyzing the 30 people in the Abu Fatima cemetery, the team found that women tended to have more wear on their head and neck areas than the male skeletons did, indicating that the women were bearing loads with head straps.

"Women exhibited specific degenerative changes in the cervical vertebrae and skull areas associated with prolonged use of tumplines that transfer weight from the forehead to the upper back," the team wrote in a statement.

Related: 3,500-year-old burial of Nubian woman reveals 1 of world's earliest known cases of rheumatoid arthritis

The cemetery was only about 6 miles (10 kilometers) north of Kerma, the capital city of Kush. "The capital in Kerma was a densely populated urban center that featured various facilities such as storage buildings, ritual structures, breweries, bakeries, and defensive walls," the researchers wrote in the study, which was published in the March issue of the Journal of Anthropological Archaeology.

Based on the skeletal analyses from the cemetery, it's likely that women in Kerma and the surrounding area carried goods and young children using head straps, the new research suggests.

The team also analyzed ancient art from Egypt that depicts Nubians who lived around this time. They noticed that some of the Nubians featured appear to be carrying children using head straps.

"The forehead straps would be attached to the basket and placed over the top of the head. This is supported by various depictions of Nubian women found in tribute scenes from 18th Dynasty Theban tombs," the team wrote in the paper.

Woman buried with ostrich fan

The elite woman's remains showed the "clearest signs" of head strap use, the team wrote in the statement. She lived sometime between 2600 and 2000 B.C., study co-author Sarah Schrader, an associate professor of archaeology at Leiden University in the Netherlands who co-led excavations at Abu Fatima, told Live Science in an email. Her remains were buried with an ostrich feather fan and a leather pillow.

The elite woman's identity is unknown, but the luxury items buried with her suggest that she had a different status to others in her community, Schrader said. It's unclear exactly what her status was, but the signs of wear indicate she still had to carry heavy loads on her head. Additionally, isotopic analysis of her remains suggests that she is from outside the region, possibly the second cataract of the Nile. This is north of the cemetery but still within the kingdom of Kush.

People in modern times still use tumplines. The practice is "still alive today in rural regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America," the team wrote in the statement.

Where it is: 25,000 light-years from the solar system in the constellation Sagittarius.

When it was shared: April 2, 2025

Why it's so special: The Milky Way often appears as a reddish, pinkish and bluish-white arc across the night sky, but this new super-long exposure image from South Africa's ground-based MeerKAT radio telescope shows our home galaxy in a completely new way.

Colored in blue, cyan, yellow and white, the main image — whose many bubbles of color are remnants of supernovas — span 1,000 light-years of the Milky Way.

The new radio image helps to put in context the inset infrared image by the James Webb Space Telescope from 2023 of Sagittarius C (Sgr C). This is a 44 light-year-wide region about 200 light-years from the Milky Way's central supermassive black hole, Sagittarius A*, where stars are being formed.

JWST's image revealed more than 500,000 stars, but in this Central Molecular Zone — an extreme environment — stars are not being formed as quickly as astronomers expect. One reason may be the strong magnetic fields around that supermassive black hole, which are shaping the filaments seen by MeerKAT and JWST. These magnetic fields may also be strong enough to resist the gravity that causes dense clouds of gas and dust to collapse to create stars, thus suppressing star formation in Sgr C.

"A big question in the Central Molecular Zone of our galaxy has been, if there is so much dense gas and cosmic dust here, and we know that stars form in such clouds, why are so few stars born here?" said John Bally, an astrophysicist at the University of Colorado Boulder and one of the principal investigators of a related paper published April 2 in The Astrophysical Journal. "Now, for the first time, we are seeing directly that strong magnetic fields may play an important role in suppressing star formation, even at small scales," Bally said in a NASA statement.

MeerKAT is a radio telescope made up of 64 dishes in South Africa's Karoo region. It will eventually form part of a far larger radio telescope called the Square Kilometre Array, the world's largest and most sensitive radio telescope that will also use more than 130,000 Christmas tree-shaped antennas on the traditional lands of the Wajarri Yamaji, in Murchison, Western Australia.

For more sublime space images, check out our Space Photo of the Week archives.

Experts told Live Science it was probably the proto-Sinaitic script, which was invented about 4,000 years ago by Canaanite workers at an Egyptian turquoise mine in the Sinai region. The proto-Sinaitic script developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which, in turn, inspired the early Hebrew, Greek and Roman alphabets.

However, a November 2024 discovery by researchers at Johns Hopkins University suggested that an alphabetic script was being used hundreds of years earlier, in what is now northern Syria. Their evidence is four clay cylinders, each about as long as a finger, from a Bronze Age tomb at Umm el-Marra, near Aleppo.

Radiocarbon dating suggests symbols were inscribed on the cylinders in about 2400 B.C., about 500 years before the proto-Sinaitic script was developed.

Related: How do we decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics and other ancient languages?

But not everyone is convinced by the discovery, and maintain that proto-Sinaitic script is the oldest known alphabet, which is a specific kind of writing system. "I think [the Umm el-Marra inscriptions] clearly are some sort of writing system," Philippa Steele, a philologist at the University of Cambridge, told Live Science in an email. But "what is more difficult is being sure that it is related to the alphabetic system."

Ancient writing

Archaeologists think writing developed in several places in the ancient world independently of other writing systems. Egyptian hieroglyphs, for example, originated in about 3200 B.C., while Sumerian cuneiform seems to be from about the same time.

Ancient Chinese writing developed early in the second millennium B.C., while the earliest known writing system in the Americas is the Olmec script, from about 600 B.C.

But none of these early writing systems are classified as alphabets. Instead, they are either logographic writing systems — where each symbol represents a word or concept, such as "mountain" — or mixtures of logographies and syllabaries (where letters represent syllables) that added some characters to represent spoken sounds.

The letters in alphabets, in contrast, represent distinct sounds, or "phonemes," that are used to make up the sounds of a spoken word, Steele said in an email.

The proto-Sinaitic script seems to have been influenced by ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, but "the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet is clearly a very innovative creation," she wrote; the general principle of writing may have come from hieroglyphs, but the concept of an alphabet and the values of the letters themselves were new ideas.

Steele is most interested in the Bronze Age scripts from Crete, other parts of Greece, and Cyprus — some of which have never been deciphered. "Cyprus kept its old Bronze Age system [of writing] for well over a thousand years, and used it for Greek," she said. "So while Greek was being written in the alphabet everywhere else … in Cyprus they had this really distinctive syllabic writing system that became a symbol of cultural identity."

Silvia Ferrara, a philologist at the University of Bologna in Italy who is not involved in the Syria find, said in an email that her favorite ancient writing systems are those yet undeciphered, including the proto-Elamite script from what is now southwestern Iran, which may have influenced Mesopotamian cuneiform.

Proto-Sinaitic script debate

The proto-Sinaitic script was widely thought to be the oldest alphabet, Steele said, but the new discovery at Umm el-Marra challenged this idea.

Glenn Schwartz, an archaeologist at Johns Hopkins University who discovered the clay cylinders and presented his research at an archaeological conference in 2024, said in a statement that the artifacts were older than any known proto-Sinaitic inscriptions and were found in northern Syria. That suggests "the alphabet may have an entirely different origin story than we thought," he said.

Ferrara said she is not surprised to find that alphabets were already in use 500 years earlier than thought, although the location of the discovery is a revelation. "It is surprising to find these in Syria, but ideas and concepts traveled much more than the archaeological evidence lets on," she told Live Science.

And Steele cautioned that the Umm el-Marra cylinders contain too few signs to establish that they formed an alphabetic system. "I'd like more evidence before labeling the system as alphabetic, because we don't have enough evidence to analyze its structure," she said.

While some of the signs in the Umm el-Marra inscriptions seemed to be parallels of some proto-Sinaitic signs, for others, "any relationship is less obvious," she said.

"The main problem is that if you only have similarities in sign shape and no other way of assessing the system, then certainty is difficult to achieve," she said. "I would really like more contemporary finds to help us understand what kind of writing traditions these inscriptions belong to."

The Breakthrough Prizes are annual awards that aim to recognize "the world’s top scientists working in the fundamental sciences," according to the official website for the prizes. Six awards are given, in total, covering accomplishments in fundamental physics, mathematics and the life sciences.

This year, Dr. Jens Holst, Dr. Daniel Drucker, Dr. Joel Habener, Lotte Knudsen and Svetiana Mojsov have been announced as joint winners of one of three Breakthrough Prizes in Life Sciences for 2025.

"When something [like this award] drops in completely unexpected, that's nice, that's wonderful," Holst, a professor of medical physiology at the University of Copenhagen, told Live Science.

Related: Scientists behind tech in mRNA vaccines snag 2nd prestigious prize — is a Nobel next?

Holst and his colleagues received one of the life-science awards this year "for the discovery and characterization of glucagon-like peptide 1 and revealing its physiology and potential in treating diabetes and obesity," read an official statement.

Glucagon-like peptide 1, or GLP-1, is a hormone that the gut secretes after eating. The hormone stimulates the release of insulin, which lowers blood sugar levels, and it also slows down digestion, making people feel full. It's a key player in how the brain regulates appetite.

Drugs like Ozempic and Wegovy are examples of "GLP-1 receptor agonists" — they mimic the action of the GLP-1 hormone in the body to treat type 2 diabetes and obesity, respectively.

These drugs have garnered significant popularity over the past decade, and they are now being investigated as potential treatments for many other health conditions, ranging from substance-use disorders to Alzheimer's disease. In 2024, Wegovy also got regulatory approval in the United States to treat heart disease, although questions remain regarding how it actually treats the condition.

However, despite their success, GLP-1 receptor agonists have also faced considerable scrutiny. For instance, there have been reports of some patients experiencing nasty side effects, such as persistent vomiting and stomach paralysis.

Additionally, a large study published in 2025 revealed that these drugs may reduce the risk of developing 42 health conditions but may increase the chances of experiencing 19 others, including abdominal pain, low blood pressure and arthritis. This study was correlational, so it's unknown if GLP-1 agonists are actually driving these conditions, but it still raises questions about the drugs' long-term effects.

Even with these concerns, though, many believe these drugs have revolutionized the treatment of cardiometabolic disorders. In the U.S., 1 in 8 adults have reported using a GLP-1 drug at some point in their lives.

Holst and colleagues originally discovered the GLP-1 hormone back in the 1980s. Piece by piece, they gathered data showing that the hormone stimulated insulin secretion, and that it inhibited food intake and the emptying of the stomach after a meal, Holst said.

Over the years, the researchers further examined these physiological effects within the context of diabetes and obesity, which eventually led to the development of the widely used drugs that are household names today.

There is likely a huge interest around these drugs because they offer an alternative, and very effective, route to weight loss for people with obesity who might not have found success with other interventions, Holst said. However, as a doctor, he is more interested in their ability to treat the knock-on health concerns tied to obesity, such as certain cancers and atherosclerosis, which can lead to coronary artery disease, he added.

"What we know is that obesity is associated with a hell of [a lot of] complications," he said. "The important thing is that with these compounds, you can prevent that."

Holst and colleagues are now investigating how the body regulates its own GLP-1 hormone levels and whether this process can be manipulated. For instance, they want to see whether patients with obesity or diabetes could be given a drug that increases the secretion of their own GLP-1 hormone, rather than being given a drug that just mimics the action of GLP-1, Holst said.

In addition to the prize awarded to GLP-1's developers, the other two life sciences awards this year went to Dr. Stephen Hauser and Dr. Alberto Ascherio, for their work on multiple sclerosis, and David Liu for developing two common gene editing technologies known as "base editing" and "prime editing."

This year's winners will receive their awards at a ceremony in Los Angeles on April 5, 2025.

The two prize winners — Dr. Alberto Ascherio of Harvard and Dr. Stephen Hauser of the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) — will share $3 million for the award. For comparison, a Nobel Prize comes with 11 million Swedish kronor, a bit over $1 million.

"It's obviously an honor," Ascherio told Live Science of the recognition. He added that he's looking forward to joining the "interdisciplinary forum" of past winners of the prize, who hail from many scientific backgrounds and help decide future winners of the award.

This year's Breakthrough Prize winners will receive their awards at a ceremony in Los Angeles on April 5.

Related: In a 1st, trial finds vitamin D supplements may slow multiple sclerosis. But questions remain.

Rogue immune cells behind MS

The Breakthrough Prizes have been awarded annually since 2013 to recognize accomplishments in fundamental physics, mathematics and the life sciences. One of the three life-science prizes recognizes work in the field of neurodegenerative disorders, and this year, that prize highlighted paradigm-shifting research about multiple sclerosis (MS).

In MS, the immune system attacks fatty tissue that surrounds nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord. Called myelin, this fatty substance helps neurons send signals efficiently. The destruction of myelin undermines neurons' ability to communicate with one another while also triggering inflammation and scarring in the nervous system.

This leads to symptoms of numbness, weakness, pain, dizziness, slurred speech, coordination problems, and blurred or double vision. Depending on the subtype of MS, a person's symptoms may come and go or steadily worsen over time; some people's disease switches from the former relapsing-remitting pattern to the latter, progressive form of the disease.

Hauser, who directs UCSF's Weill Institute for Neurosciences, helped identify which immune cells actually drive MS.

It was once thought that T cells alone were responsible for the disease. These cells normally rid the body of foreign invaders by killing infected cells, sparking inflammation and summoning other immune defenses to sites of infection. But in MS, it was thought that T cells unleashed inflammation against myelin, damaging the tissue.

Research findings in the 1970s that supported this idea set the stage for MS therapies that took aim at T cells alone. However, this theory of the disease was incomplete. T cells sparked inflammation, but in animal experiments, T cells alone couldn't trigger the type of myelin damage seen in the brains of people with MS.

Hauser's research filled in the missing piece of the puzzle: Another type of immune cell, called a B cell, is also key in MS. Although he and his colleagues faced resistance to their theory, they eventually got clearance to test a B-cell-targeting drug in MS patients, and it worked. That pivotal study paved the way for B-cell-depleting therapies for MS, such as ocrelizumab, which are now a mainstay of treatment.

At the very start of his research, "it would have been impossible to imagine that 35 years later B cells would rest, arguably, at the epicenter of MS immunology," Hauser wrote in a 2015 essay.

Related: $3 million Breakthrough Prize awarded to developers of Ozempic-style drugs

Linking a very common infection to MS

Hauser will share his Breakthrough Prize with Ascherio, a professor of epidemiology and nutrition at Harvard University. Ascherio is being recognized for "revealing that Epstein-Barr virus infection is the leading risk for multiple sclerosis."

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) causes the common disease infectious mononucleosis, better known as "mono"; over 95% of people catch the EBV virus by adulthood, although not all get the symptoms associated with mono, such as fatigue, fever or swollen lymph nodes. Through a painstaking 20-year study, Ascherio and his colleagues demonstrated that, following an EBV infection, an individual's risk of MS increases 32-fold.

No other risk factors or viral infections are tied to such a stark increase in the risk for the disease. And absolutely no MS cases were seen among people in the study who hadn't caught EBV.

"The fact that the virus is so common makes it difficult to prove," Ascherio said. Difficult, but not impossible — Ascherio mentioned polio as a similar example. The annual rate of symptomatic polio infections in the U.S. peaked in 1952, reaching nearly 58,000 reported cases, and of those, over 21,000 caused paralysis. But many cases of polio go unnoticed; approximately 70% cause no symptoms, while less than 1% of infections lead to paralyzing disease.

"So it's quite common for a virus to be nearly ubiquitous — infect everyone — but cause severe disease, in particular neurological diseases, in only a small minority," Ascherio told Live Science.

Since the publication of Ascherio's 20-year study, "there's been a huge shift" in the field, he said. "Now, EBV has been accepted as a central player and the leading cause of MS."

However, it's not yet known how EBV infection ultimately leads to MS. It's important to note that EBV is a herpesvirus, which means it can lurk in the body, go dormant and reactivate later on. For his part, Ascherio thinks EBV reactivation in the brain is likely important for the development of MS. Figuring out how that mechanism works could help explain why, out of the many people who catch EBV, only a small percentage end up with MS.

But even if that mechanism is unclear, knowing EBV is a key driver of MS points to possible solutions, Ascherio said. For instance, various groups are working on vaccines to prevent EBV infection, with the hope of snuffing out MS down the line.

And in theory, you could come up with something like the shingles vaccine, which works by preventing reactivation of the virus that causes chickenpox; perhaps a similar shot could prevent EBV reactivation in the body, Ascherio suggested.

Located over 12 million light-years from Earth, a spiral galaxy known as NGC 4945 is blowing powerful winds of material from the supermassive black hole located at its core. Using the European Southern Observatory's (ESO) Very Large Telescope (VLT), which is located on Cerro Paranal mountain in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, astronomers captured an up-close view of the galaxy's active core and the fast winds flowing out from the black hole.

The photo suggests that interstellar 'scraps' of matter are being strewn into space as the hungry black hole chows down on its dinner. "At the very center of nearly every galaxy is a supermassive black hole," ESO officials said in a statement accompanying the new VLT image on March 31. "Some, like the one at the center of our own Milky Way, aren't particularly hungry. But NGC 4945's supermassive black hole is ravenous, consuming huge amounts of matter."

The galactic winds, represented as bright cone-shaped jets of material in the image, are moving so fast that the gas and dust is likely escaping the galaxy and being ejected into intergalactic space before the black hole can even feast on it.

"This messy eater, contrary to a black hole's typical all-consuming reputation, is blowing out powerful winds of material," ESO officials added.

The recent VLT observations were taken as part of a larger study on how winds move in galaxies. The MUSE data shows that the galactic winds observed in NGC 4945 speed up as they travel away from the central black hole, toward the outskirts of the galaxy. This is unusual behavior, given galactic winds generally slow down as they travel further outwards in a galaxy.

These fast-moving winds can have a significant impact on their host galaxy. By ejecting material from the galaxy, the winds inhibit star formation.

"It also shows that the more powerful black holes impede their own growth by removing the gas and dust they feed on, driving the whole system closer towards a sort of galactic equilibrium," ESO officials said in the statement. "Now, with these new results, we are one step closer to understanding the acceleration mechanism of the winds responsible for shaping the evolution of galaxies, and the history of the universe."

In the up-close view of NGC 4945, the galaxy's active core is obscured by dust and gas drawn to this area by the strong gravitational pull of the black hole, which feeds on the interstellar material. The glowing galactic winds shine through the dust and gas clouds, flowing out from the black hole. The zoomed-in view was overlaid on a wider image of NGC 4945, taken by the MPG/ESO telescope at La Silla, Chile.

A study of these galactic winds was published in Nature Astronomy.

Originally posted on Space.com.

Black hole quiz: How supermassive is your knowledge of the universe?

Their calculations suggest that, at the smallest scales, space-time behaves in a profoundly quantum way, differing drastically from the smooth, continuous structure we experience in everyday life. According to their findings, the coordinates of space-time do not "commute" — meaning the order in which they appear in equations affects the outcome. This is similar to how a particle's position and velocity behave in quantum mechanics.

One of the most striking consequences of this quantum space-time, as predicted by string theory, is that it naturally leads to cosmic acceleration. Moreover, the researchers found that the rate at which this acceleration decreases over time aligns remarkably well with the latest observations from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI).

"Viewed through the lens of our work, you could think of the DESI result as the first observational evidence supporting string theory and perhaps the first observable consequences of string theory and quantum gravity," study co-author Michael Kavic, a professor at SUNY Old Westbury, told Live Science via email.

The mystery of the universe's expansion

In 1998, two independent teams — the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team — discovered that the universe's expansion was not slowing down, as previously thought, but was instead accelerating. They reached this conclusion by studying distant supernovas, which appeared dimmer than expected. This acceleration implied the presence of a mysterious entity permeating space, later dubbed dark energy.

Related: 'The universe has thrown us a curveball': Largest-ever map of space reveals we might have gotten dark energy totally wrong

However, the origin of dark energy has remained elusive. A popular hypothesis suggests it arises from quantum fluctuations in the vacuum, similar to those seen in the electromagnetic field. Yet, when physicists attempted to compute the expansion rate based on this idea, they arrived at a value that was 120 orders of magnitude too large — a staggering discrepancy.

Recent DESI observations further complicated the picture. According to the Standard Model of elementary particles, if dark energy were simply a vacuum energy, its density should remain constant over time. However, DESI data indicate that the acceleration rate is not fixed but that it decreases over time — something the Standard Model does not predict.

Solving the mystery with string theory

To address these inconsistencies, the researchers turned to string theory, one of the leading candidates for a quantum theory of gravity. Unlike the Standard Model, which treats elementary particles as point-like, string theory proposes that they are actually tiny, vibrating, one-dimensional objects called strings. These strings, depending on their modes of vibration, give rise to different particles — including the graviton, the hypothetical quantum carrier of gravity.

In a new paper that was posted in the preprint database arXiv but has not been peer-reviewed, physicists Sunhaeng Hur, Djordje Minic, Tatsu Takeuchi (Virginia Tech), Vishnu Jejjala (University of the Witwatersrand), and Michael Kavic applied string theory to analyze space-time at the quantum level.

By replacing the Standard Model's description of particles with the framework from string theory, the researchers found that space-time itself is inherently quantum and noncommutative, meaning the order in which coordinates appear in equations matters.

This radical departure from classical physics allowed them to derive the properties of dark energy not just from experimental data, but directly from a fundamental physical theory. Their model not only yielded a dark energy density that closely matches observational data but also correctly predicted that this energy should decrease over time, aligning with DESI's findings.

One of the most striking aspects of their result is that the value of dark energy depends on two vastly different length scales: the Planck length, the fundamental scale of quantum gravity, which is about 10⁻³³ centimeters; and the size of the universe, which is billions of light-years across. Such a connection between the smallest and largest scales in the cosmos is highly unusual in physics and suggests that dark energy is deeply tied to the quantum nature of space-time itself.

"This hints at a deeper connection between quantum gravity and the dynamical properties of nature that had been supposed to be constant," Kavic said. "It may turn out that a fundamental misapprehension we carry with us is that the basic defining properties of our universe are static when in fact they are not."

Experimental tests and future prospects

Although the team's explanation of the universe's accelerated expansion is a significant theoretical breakthrough, independent experimental tests are needed to confirm their model. The researchers have proposed concrete ways to test their ideas.

One line of evidence "involves detecting complicated quantum interference patterns, which is impossible in standard quantum physics but should occur in quantum gravity," Minic added.

Interference occurs when waves, such as light or matter waves, overlap and either amplify or cancel each other out, creating characteristic patterns. In conventional quantum mechanics, interference follows well-understood rules, typically involving two or more possible quantum paths. However, higher-order interference—predicted by some quantum gravity models—suggests more complex interactions that go beyond these standard patterns. Detecting such effects in the lab would be a groundbreaking test of quantum gravity.

"These are tabletop experiments that could be performed in the near future — within three to four years."

"There are many implications of our approach to quantum gravity," said Djordje Minic, a physicist at Virginia Tech and co-author of the paper, in an email. One line of evidence "involves detecting complicated quantum interference patterns, which is impossible in standard quantum physics but should occur in quantum gravity," Minic added.

Interference occurs when waves, such as light or matter waves, overlap and either amplify or cancel each other out, creating characteristic patterns. In conventional quantum mechanics, interference follows well-understood rules. However, some quantum gravity models suggest more complex interactions that go beyond these standard patterns. Detecting such effects in the lab would be a groundbreaking test of quantum gravity.

"These are tabletop experiments that could be performed in the near future — within three to four years."

In the meantime, the researchers are not waiting for experimental confirmations. They are continuing to refine their understanding of quantum space-time, as well as exploring additional avenues for testing their theory.

If confirmed, their findings would mark a major breakthrough not only in explaining dark energy but also in providing the first tangible evidence for string theory — a long-sought goal in fundamental physics.

The Y10 PRO offers advanced features including continuous plaque monitoring, a unique diamond-embedded toothbrush head which Usmile says results in a 440% whiter clean, and a whopping 180 days’ continuous battery life. It also features customised brushing modes using a gyroscopic sensor that recognises the position in which you’re using it, adapting the brushing style to ensure a thorough clean and up to 4.4 times more plaque removal.

Priced at around $80 to $90, depending on the retailer, you’re getting a lot of technology for your buck. Not only does the Y10 PRO offer information on your cleaning routine in multiple languages, it also provides four cleaning modes, a USB Type-C charger cable, smart gum care, a color display and a spare toothbrush head, and is fully waterproof so that you can use it in the shower. With a vibration frequency of 38,000/minute, a quad pacing timer and a charging time of 4-5 hours, it promises to be the only toothbrush you’ll ever need.

Usmile Y10 PRO Sonic electric toothbrush review

Usmile Y10 PRO Sonic electric toothbrush: Design

• Sleek, expensive-looking design
• Extended display offers oral care advice
• The charging cable could be longer

The Y10 Pro comes encased in a sleek white box with the promise of a stylish handset inside, and we weren’t disappointed. This is a seriously good-looking toothbrush that looks a lot more expensive than it is, especially compared to other brushes in its price range.

The handle is made of matte white plastic (although the Y10 PRO is also available in a black colorway), which makes it sturdy and easy to grip. Some people with poor grip may find that the handset's lack of rubber or ergonomic shaping makes it easier to slip out of their hands when wet, especially if they use it in the shower, although we encountered no such issues during our testing.

The front of the handset has a color display, which is extended compared to the smaller display offered on the Usmile Y10 standard model. This display provides further information and advice to complement your brushing technique and ensure thorough cleaning. Little icons help indicate the information being offered, although we would say that some of the messages are a little confusing. However, more on that later.

The black power button is below the display, and beneath it is the subtly designed function button to switch modes and language. Thankfully, the handset has a removable sticker that tells you what each button is for and how to operate it for different features. We recommend keeping this on the handset until you’re 100% confident you can fully use all the Y10 PRO features, just in case!

At the handset's base is the usmile branding, which is again subtly picked out. Turning the handset over, you’ll see a fine indicator that lets you know if you’re brushing too hard. And, hallelujah, someone has thought to put this where you’ll likely see it! So many brands put this indicator on the other side, where it’s incredibly hard to spot while brushing, so well done to the designers at usmile for this simple but handy design feature.

At the base of the handset is the charging port, protected by a silicon cover which is also handily attached so you don't lose it by accident.

Turning our attention to the toothbrush head, we find a similarly stylish and unusually thoughtful design. Each one comes in its own case, which is ideal if you want to pack your toothbrush away for travel or simply protect it from germs in the bathroom.

The toothbrush neck is slender, so you can navigate your way into tight spaces at the back of the mouth, while the head itself is pleasantly small and features a soft rubber back to protect the inside of the mouth and gums during brushing. This is picked out in a soft powder blue with the usmile logo. The bristles are blue, white and purple, and have a distinct diamond-embedded design paired with air-cushion technology to give full coverage while protecting the gums during brushing.

Replacement brush heads are readily available on Amazon and cost around $16.99 for two, which isn't bad value. Overall, the design is impressive — stylish and functional, two things which don't always go hand-in-hand with electric toothbrushes. Our only gripe is that the charging cable is a little short. At just 19 inches (just over 48 cm), it won’t allow us to charge the toothbrush on a dressing table — instead, we had to leave it to charge on the floor. But if that’s only every six months, it’s not much of a hardship.

Finally, the adhesive toothbrush holder is a nice touch, enabling you to pop your toothbrush within easy reach. The sticking power is good, and so far, the Y10 PRO hasn’t clattered into the bathroom basin.

Usmile Y10 PRO Sonic electric toothbrush: Features

• Four brushing modes, including whitening
• No connected app
• Pressure sensor isn’t great

There is plenty to love about the features included in the Y10 PRO. One standout aspect of the advanced technology is the continuous plaque monitoring system, which helps improve your brushing habits. At the end of every brushing session, you get a read-out of how much plaque you've removed and see the areas in your mouth you still need to brush. Data geeks will love these features, but they can also be a simple way to improve reluctant brushers’ techniques. A great gift for teenagers who need a little nudge to improve their oral health, perhaps.

It also boasts a diamond-embedded toothbrush head, which Usmile claims delivers a 440% whiter clean. The impressive battery life lasts up to 180 days on a single 4-5 hour charge, so there’s no need to worry about frequent charging, or even taking your charger on vacation.

The Y10 PRO uses a gyroscopic sensor to detect the angle and position of the brush in your mouth, and then adapts the brushing style automatically. This gives you up to 4.4 times more plaque removal, according to Usmile. With four cleaning modes (white, clean, soft, and smart), you can customise your brushing based on your unique oral care needs.

The Y10 PRO also features a color display, a quad-pacing timer which buzzes gently to remind you to switch positions to ensure even brushing and a vibration frequency of up to 38,000 movements per minute.

Usmile Y10 PRO Sonic electric toothbrush: Performance

The Y10 PRO comes almost fully charged, so there’s no need to hang around waiting to charge it before you can get stuck in. It takes a little while to get your head around changing the language, but with a quick internet search, we were up and running. There is information in the manual on how to do this but it’s quite well hidden.

It features four cleaning modes, each of which we tried several times during the testing period.

• Smart Mode: Adapts to different tooth surfaces with an intelligent algorithm.
• Clean Mode: Cleans teeth with moderate pressure, suitable for everyday cleaning.
• White Mode: Cleans and polishes teeth with stronger pressure, suitable for deep cleaning.
• Soft Mode: Gently cleans teeth with light pressure, suitable for sensitive gums or for first-time users to get used to applying the right level of pressure.

It’s fairly difficult to tell the difference between smart, white, and clean modes regarding mouthfeel, but each one leaves your teeth feeling clean and your mouth fresh. We generally preferred the smart mode, as you tend to notice the subtle changes in vibrations as the toothbrush tackles the front and back and grinding surfaces of the teeth as you move the toothbrush around your mouth.

We enjoyed the data readout you get at the end of your brushing session on the color display. It includes feedback on how much plaque you've removed and which areas in your mouth you still need to brush. Although some of the messages that come through are a little odd, such as “need enhance” and “less time”, so they could be finessed a little.

The quad pacing works well to remind you to move your brush to the next section of your mouth, although it is subtle so you may need to listen out for it.

The Y10 PRO is also quiet during operation, at just 37 decibels, according to our decibel meter reader. That’s about as quiet as the ambient sounds in a library or distant bird calls.

However, the pressure sensor could be more sensitive. We found we were practically smashing the brush head into our teeth and gums to get the sensor to light up, so you may want to opt for a toothbrush with a more advanced sensor that can protect vulnerable gums if you know you have a heavy brushing technique.

There's no question that the six-month battery life is amazing. Just the fact that we've been able to brush every day for two weeks and run the toothbrush continually for an hour without having to charge at all is fantastic. The Type-C USB charging cable works well and means you don't need a toothbrush charger taking up permanent space in your bathroom or bedroom. Charging takes around four or five hours for a full battery.

The toothbrush is also fully waterproof, so if you prefer to brush your teeth in the bath or shower, you needn't fear water damage.

Usmile Y10 PRO Sonic electric toothbrush: User reviews

The Y10 PRO garners an impressive 4.4 stars out of 5 on Amazon, with over 1,000 reviews. Users rated its advanced features and performance, with many appreciating the smart screen that helps them identify spots they’ve missed. The 180-day battery life is often praised for its convenience, especially for travellers. One user noted: "The sonic cleaning technology really makes a difference — I can feel my teeth getting cleaner with each use."

Some negative reviews mentioned concerns about the plastic build quality and occasional defects in individual units. A few users also noted that the non-oscillating brush head design can make it hard to reach the back teeth, while others said the pressure sensor wasn’t as sensitive as they’d like — something we identified in our testing, too.

The lowest ratings come from users who couldn’t change the language to English. While it’s certainly possible to do this, it requires a little searching for online advice and could be better signposted in the manual. Overall, though, it’s a solid review performance for the Y10 PRO.

Should you buy the Usmile Y10 PRO Sonic electric toothbrush?

✅ Buy it if: You appreciate never (almost) having to charge your toothbrush. With six months of battery life, you may even misplace your charging cable!

❌ Don’t buy it if: You need a very sensitive pressure sensor. If you have problems with gum sensitivity or have a heavy brushing style, you may want a toothbrush with a better sensor.

If the Usmile Y10 PRO Sonic electric toothbrush isn’t for you

If you prefer an oscillating electric toothbrush with a long battery life, the Bitvae R2 offers 30 days of usage between charges and everything you need for excellent oral hygiene without the eye-watering price tag. It also comes with a handful of spare brush heads, a travel case, five cleaning modes and a pressure sensor — and costs just $34.99.

If you’re after a toothbrush that will help to protect sensitive teeth and gums, the Oclean X Pro Digital Sonic offers great brushing efficiency without aggravating gums. This skilfully designed device features a powerful Maglev motor that delivers an efficient yet gentle clean and comes with brush heads that are easy on the gums. However, it costs $119, or $99 without a case and spare brush heads.

For a no-frills electric toothbrush, you could try the Ordo Sonic+. With a stylish design and exceptional battery life, it offers a good clean that is gentle enough for those with sensitive teeth and gums. Plus, it comes at a very reasonable price of $50 to $80 (depending on the retailer), so it’s ideal if you’re on a budget.

Usmile Y10 PRO Sonic electric toothbrush: How we tested

We spent two weeks testing the Usmile Y10 PRO Sonic electric toothbrush, assessing design, brushing efficiency, ease of use, battery life, and value for money. We also measured how loud it was using the Sound Meter decibel-counting app, and tested its water resistance by submerging it for the duration of a two-minute brushing cycle.

Previously dubbed Project Digits, the powerful machines first revealed at CES 2025 in January have been rebranded as the DGX Spark and DGX Station machines. These computers are powered by Nvidia’s Blackwell Ultra platform and promise up to a petaFLOP in processing power — upwards of 1,000 times faster than the best laptops or high-end desktop PCs.

Blackwell Ultra is designed for massive-scale AI training and testing, and the DGX machines promise to put that power into the hands of data scientists, AI researchers and students at a relatively affordable price point. It’s the equivalent of putting the power of a data center into a computer small enough to fit on your desk.

The DGX Spark is a little box smaller than a laptop that you could easily tuck away on a corner of your desk or fit into your bag. It stands just under 2 inches (5 centimeters) in height and slightly under 6 inches (15 cm) in width, and at its core is the GB10 Grace Blackwell Superchip, capable of delivering 1,000 AI TOPS (trillions of operations per second).

Related: The 9 most powerful supercomputers in the world right now

It also comes with 128 gigabytes of unified system memory and Nvidia’s full stack of AI software, including a number of tools, libraries as well as some pretrained models. This includes things like the CUDA Deep Neural Network (cuDNN) library for enhancing neural network layers during training and inference and a pre-trained SegFormer model. The Nvidia version of the DGX Spark is available to reserve online starting at $3,999, although the company has said other models will soon be available from manufacturers like ASUS, Dell and Lenovo.

Supercomputing power in a desktop tower chassis

The DGX Station is the Spark’s larger, more powerful sibling and is closer in size to a professional workstation.

Built around the GB300 Grace Blackwell Ultra Desktop Superchip, it contains a staggering 748 GB of "large coherent" memory — memory which can be accessed by more than one processor at a time.

It also features Nvidia’s ConnectX-8 SuperNIC, which enables network connectivity at a blistering rate of up to 800 gigabits a second — fast enough to download approximately five 4K movies in a second.

It also uses the NVLink-C2C Interconnect to connect internal components at 900 gigabytes per second. The DGX Station is a powerhouse designed to execute large-scale AI training and inferencing workloads from the comfort of your desktop, without having to access additional resources through the cloud.

The DGX Station isn’t currently available to reserve, but Nvidia has indicated it will be available later in 2025 from partners like Asus, Dell, HP, Lambda and Supermicro.

Jensen Huang, Nvidia’s founder and CEO, said the new DGX machines represent a natural next step in AI development.

"AI has transformed every layer of the computing stack. It stands to reason a new class of computers would emerge, designed for AI-native developers and to run AI-native applications,” he said in a statement. "With these new DGX personal AI computers, AI can span from cloud services to desktop and edge applications."

Where it lives: Northern Madagascar

What it eats: Fruits, flowers, nectar, tree sap and small insects

Why it's awesome: Northern giant mouse lemurs may be tiny, but they have a striking trait: remarkably large testicles. The primates only weigh around 10 ounces (300 grams), but they have the largest testes-to-body ratio of all primates — with their testicles making up around 5% of their body weight.

These nocturnal lemurs, which are native to the forests of the Ampasindava peninsula in northwestern Madagascar, are around 10 inches (25 centimeters) long, excluding their tails.

Only discovered in 2005, they have large, round, reflective eyes that enable them to see in low light. Their long, fluffy tails help them balance as they jump through the trees, and their large, thin ears help them listen out for predators.

But it's their unusually large testicles that make them stand out from the crowd.

If humans had a similar ratio, their testicles would be the size of grapefruits, according to New Scientist. These animals' testicles are so large that often, lemurs will bump and bruise their testicles as they jump and swing between tree branches – which is an unfortunate consequence of their physical traits.

The reason these lemurs have such large testicles is because they have a polygynandrous mating system, meaning both males and females have multiple partners. As the males face intense competition to fertilize females, they evolved larger testes to produce more sperm. Higher amounts of sperm means they can produce larger ejaculations and mate more frequently.

Unlike many other lemur species, northern giant mouse lemurs don't have specific mating seasons, so they reproduce all year round. Researchers think this is because nutrient-rich foods are constantly available. As a result, their testicles stay huge throughout the year.

When females are ready to mate, they let out calls to attract males. They give birth to one offspring after about three months, but because they mate year-round, they can have two or three infants in a year. Females are the sole care providers for the young, and the offspring reach maturity at around 1 year old.

Northern giant mouse lemurs build nests high in the trees to protect themselves from predators and harsh environmental conditions, such as monsoons. They form communal sleeping nests that can house up to eight lemurs, including multiple males and lemurs of different ages, which is an uncommon social behavior. It's not known exactly why they do this, but it may be to help them keep warm during the colder months and therefore conserve their energy.

The warrior's burial was unearthed in 2004 during an archaeological survey of the Kerdugen area, about 87 miles (140 kilometers) east of the central Siberian city of Yakutsk in Russia's Sakha Republic, also known as Yakutia.

His remains were discovered relatively near the surface, along with several arrowheads — indicating he once had a bow, although this has since rotted away — and plates of animal bone that would have formed a large shield. Radiocarbon dating determined the grave was about 4,000 years old.

Work on the reconstruction started in 2023, and the model recently went on display in the archaeology museum at the North-Eastern Federal University in Yakutsk, according to a translated report by the government-owned TASS news agency.

Related: 45 amazing facial reconstructions, from Stone Age shamans to King Tut

Stone Age remains

An examination of the man's remains suggested he was about 5 feet 5 inches (165 centimeters) tall, and that he died between the ages of 40 and 50, making him elderly for a person in the late Stone Age.

The shape of his skull suggested he had the same ethnicity as people native to Siberia's Arctic regions, and healed injuries on his bones suggested he had lived a very active and combative life — possibly the life of a warrior and archer.

To create a reconstruction based on the man's skull, researchers used photogrammetry, which involves knitting together many digital images to make a virtual 3D model. They also used techniques for creating faces from skulls that were pioneered by the Soviet anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov.

The researchers also reconstructed the large shield. It was originally made from plates of animal bone, probably from a type of elk called an Altai wapiti (Cervus canadensis sibiricus), that seem to have been glued onto a leather base.

The archaeologists also found fragments from arrowheads stuck into six of the bone plates, which indicated the shield had protected its user in battle.

Siberian Stone Age

The warrior was from Yakutia's prehistoric Ymyyakhtakh culture, which has left distinctive pottery and other artifacts throughout the region.

The Ymyyakhtakh people were Neolithic — from the "New Stone Age" — which in some areas implies farmers; but in this case the Ymyyakhtakh were nomadic hunter-gatherers who used advanced tools, weapons and materials.

TASS reported that the burial in the Kerdugen area had been unusually well-preserved.

The warrior's grave also held fragments of bones from a second human body, which may be evidence that a human sacrifice took place during the ancient burial ceremony — possibly even accompanied by ritual cannibalism, signs of which have been reported at other ancient ritual sites in Siberia.

The most likely explanation is that it's an adaptation to Australia's unforgiving environment. Multiple vaginas — and uteruses, of which they also have two — enable female kangaroos, and all marsupials, to have multiple offspring at different stages of development at any given time. That helps increase the chances of one surviving to adulthood.

" They can have a joey that's still dependent on them, but it's out of the pouch," Dr. Marcie Logsdon, an associate professor in the College of Veterinary Medicine at Washington State University, told Live Science. "They can have a joey that's in the pouch, and they can have one that's kind of in reserve up there, waiting to start development."

A newborn kangaroo is underdeveloped and needs to spend a long time in its mother's pouch nursing and growing before it's ready for the outside world.

"The first 10 months, they go from being these pink, scraggly skeletons into little fuzzy cute babies that you see in the pictures," Kelly Forrester, a doctoral student at the University of Alberta who has co-authored studies on kangaroo reproduction, told Live Science. "And then the last eight months, you call them 'young at foot,' where they're coming in and out of the pouch and they're learning to hop around, but they're still pretty gangly and they can't thermoregulate … so 18 months of their life is spent highly reliant on mom."

Related: Why are there so many marsupials in Australia?

All that nursing in the pouch requires a huge amount of energy for the mother kangaroo. "Lactation is very, very expensive," Logsdon said. "Lactation is more expensive than pregnancy, oftentimes."

When kangaroos experience drought conditions, they often can't get enough food to continue lactating, and that joey in their pouch dies. To pass their genes to the next generation, they need to produce another joey as quickly as possible.

Luckily, pregnancy and lactation don't stop a kangaroo's estrous, or reproductive cycle. At any time during estrous, a male kangaroo's sperm can travel up one of the two lateral vaginas and fertilize an egg, which implants in whichever of the two uteruses isn't being used at the moment. (Although many other marsupials have a two-pronged penis to help send sperm through both vaginas, kangaroos have only one.)

But if there's already a joey in the pouch, there's a problem: That joey will need that pouch for 18 months, but an egg goes from conception to birth in about 30 days, according to Forrester. So the kangaroo's body puts the egg's development on pause.

"If they're waiting for optimal conditions or maybe for their young to come out, that fertilized egg will just sit, waiting," Forrester said.

Once it's fully developed and ready to be born, the jellybean-size joey emerges through a new opening. "The central [vagina] doesn't fully connect to the opening into the outside until a female marsupial becomes pregnant for the first time," Logsdon said. "Then it connects and it opens up, and that's their road out."

The kangaroo's strange anatomy may also be a reason for their offspring's small size. Through a quirk of evolution, a female kangaroo's two urinary tracts pass through the spaces between the three vaginas.

"If the babies got a lot larger, then there would be an issue because of that strange anatomy," Logsdon said. "It's not a very conducive environment to have large things passing in and out if you're going to have your urinary tract worked up in that too."

Animal quiz: Test yourself on these fun animal trivia questions

The counterintuitive solution, known as public key cryptography, relies not on keeping a key secret, but rather on making it widely available. The trick is to also use a second key that you never share with anyone, even the person you're communicating with. It's only by using this combination of two keys — one public, one private — that someone can both scramble and unscramble a message.

To understand how this works, it's easier to think of the "keys" not as objects that fit into a lock, but as two complementary ingredients in an invisible ink. The first ingredient makes messages disappear, and the second makes them reappear. If a spy named Boris wants to send his counterpart Natasha a secret message, he writes a message and then uses the first ingredient to render it invisible on the page. (This is easy for him to do: Natasha has published an easy and well-known formula for disappearing ink.) When Natasha receives the paper in the mail, she applies the second ingredient that makes Boris' message reappear.

Related: Quantum computers will be a dream come true for hackers, risking everything from military secrets to bank information. Can we stop them?

In this scheme, anyone can make messages invisible, but only Natasha can make them visible again. And because she never shares the formula for the second ingredient with anyone — not even Boris — she can be sure the message hasn't been deciphered along the way. When Boris wants to receive secret messages, he simply adopts the same procedure: He publishes an easy recipe for making messages disappear (that Natasha or anyone else can use), while keeping another one just for himself that makes them reappear.

In public key cryptography, the "public" and "private" keys work just like the first and second ingredients in this special invisible ink: One encrypts messages, the other decrypts them. But instead of using chemicals, public key cryptography uses mathematical puzzles called trapdoor functions. These functions are easy to compute in one direction and extremely difficult to reverse. But they also contain "trapdoors," pieces of information that, if known, make the functions trivially easy to compute in both directions.

One common trapdoor function involves multiplying two large prime numbers, an easy operation to perform. But reversing it — that is, starting with the product and finding each prime factor — is computationally impractical. To make a public key, start with two large prime numbers. These are your trapdoors. Multiply the two numbers together, then perform some additional mathematical operations. This public key can now encrypt messages. To decrypt them, you'll need the corresponding private key, which contains the prime factors — the necessary trapdoors. With those numbers, it's easy to decrypt the message. Keep those two prime factors secret, and the message will stay secret.

The foundations for public key cryptography were first discovered between 1970 and 1974 by British mathematicians working for the U.K. Government Communications Headquarters, the same government agency that cracked the Nazi Enigma code during World War II. Their work (which remained classified until 1997) was shared with the U.S. National Security Agency, but due to limited and expensive computing capacity, neither government implemented the system. In 1976, the American researchers Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman discovered the first publicly known public key cryptography scheme, influenced by the cryptographer Ralph Merkle. Just a year later, the RSA algorithm, named after its inventors Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman, established a practical way to use public key cryptography. It's still in wide use today, a fundamental building block of the modern internet, enabling everything from shopping to web-based email.

This two-key system also makes possible "digital signatures" — mathematical proof that a message was generated by the holder of a private key. This works because private keys can be used to encrypt messages too, not just decrypt them. Of course, this is useless for keeping messages secret: If you used your private key to scramble a message, anyone could just use the corresponding public key to unscramble it. But it does prove that you, and only you, created the message, since as the holder of the private key, only you could have encrypted the message. Cryptocurrencies like bitcoin couldn't exist without this idea.

If two cryptographic keys instead of one is so effective, why did it take millennia to discover? According to Russell Impagliazzo, a computer scientist and cryptography theorist at the University of California, San Diego, the concept of a trapdoor function just wasn't useful enough before the invention of computers.

"It's a matter of technology," he said. "A person in the 19th century thought of encryption as being between individual agents with military intelligence in the field — literally, in a field with guns firing. So if your first step is 'pick two 100-digit prime numbers to multiply together,' the battle is going to be over before you do that." If you reduce the problem to something a human can do quickly, it's not going to be terribly secure.

Original story reprinted with permission from Quanta Magazine, an editorially independent publication supported by the SimonsFoundation.

Plus, in this week's science news, we've learned that AI models will lie to us to achieve their goals. In fact, a new study has found that large language models can be convinced to lie to users when given coercive prompts by trainers.

This week, we've also learned that talking to AI models about war and violence makes them more anxious and that using AI may reduce our critical thinking skills.

America is 'dripping'

North America is 'dripping' down into Earth's mantle, scientists discover

Deep beneath the Midwest lies an ancient slab of Earth's crust, and it's sucking swaths of North America's present-day crust down into Earth's mantle. The pull of this slab has created giant "drips" that hang from the underside of North America to depths of about 400 miles (640 kilometers), according to new research.

The drips are located beneath an area spanning from Michigan to Nebraska and down to Alabama, but their presence appears to be affecting the entire continent.

Discover more planet Earth news

—Scientists drilled into Belize's Great Blue Hole and discovered a worrying trend

—Lava bursts through Grindavík's defense barriers as new volcanic eruption begins on Iceland's Reykjanes Peninsula

—'We didn't expect to find such a beautiful, thriving ecosystem': Hidden world of life discovered beneath Antarctic iceberg

Life's Little Mysteries

How much of your brain do you need to survive?

There's a myth that humans use only 10% of their brains. However, while most of us do use all of our brains, that doesn't mean we need 100% of our brains to live. People who have survived strokes, traumatic brain injuries and brain surgery can, in some cases, function completely "normally," highlighting the human brain's staggering adaptability to damage. So, how much of our brains do we really need to survive?

Sutton Hoo mystery solved?

Mysterious origin of iconic Sutton Hoo helmet possibly revealed in new research

The Sutton Hoo helmet, discovered in 1939, is one of the U.K.'s most iconic archaeological finds. The seventh-century helmet is a curious mix of Northern European and Roman styles, and its origins have been hotly debated.

Now, a discovery in Denmark suggests that the famous artifact may have been crafted in southern Scandinavia, or at least was heavily influenced by the artistic style of that area.

Discover more archaeology news

—3-year-old picks up 'beautiful stone,' discovers 3,800-year-old scarab amulet in Israel

—Ancient Egypt: History, dynasties, religion and writing

—Unknown human lineage lived in 'Green Sahara' 7,000 years ago, ancient DNA reveals

Also in science news this week

—'Be ready to move quickly to higher ground': Forecaster delivers ominous warning of 1-in-1,000-year flood coming for central US

—'Twins! She has another baby': Sea monster from Chile had 2 buns in the oven, rare fossil reveals

—Your brain starts eating itself during a marathon, study finds

—Gaia telescope retires: Scientists bid farewell to 'the discovery machine of the decade' that mapped 2 billion Milky Way stars

Science Spotlight

Quantum computers will be a dream come true for hackers, risking everything from military secrets to bank information. Can we stop them?

We are edging ever closer to a new age of quantum computing. Computers that harness the laws of quantum mechanics will perform calculations exponentially faster than the classical computers we have today. The technology has the potential to solve complex problems that have puzzled scientists for decades, but it could also cause significant problems for cybersecurity.

When quantum computers are first rolled out, most of us will still rely on classical computers and classical ways of encrypting sensitive information. Cracking this encryption is near impossible on a classical computer, but quantum computers may find it trivially easy, making everything from banking passwords to military secrets vulnerable to hackers.

Can we find new ways to keep our data secure?

Something for the weekend

If you're looking for something a little longer to read over the weekend, here are some of the best long reads, book excerpts and interviews published this week.

—Mathematicians solve vexing 'crowd problem' that explains why public spaces devolve into chaos

—The history of cat domestication

—World's largest atom smasher makes 1st-of-its-kind 'beauty' particle discovery that could unlock new physics

Science in pictures

Jaw-dropping NASA image reveals a dying star at the heart of the Helix Nebula — and it may have just murdered a planet

At the heart of the Helix Nebula lies the remains of a dying star located 650 light-years from Earth. The star is gradually shedding its outer gas layers into the space that surrounds it, while stellar radiation causes this gas to glow like a giant ring. However, NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory has detected some peculiar X-ray emissions from the region. Scientists think these strange emissions may be the remnants of a celestial murder scene, indicating that the dying star may have gobbled up an orbiting planet that flew too close to its dying sun.

Follow Live Science on social media

Want more science news? Follow our Live Science WhatsApp Channel for the latest discoveries as they happen. It's the best way to get our expert reporting on the go, but if you don't use WhatsApp we're also on Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), Flipboard, Instagram, TikTok, Bluesky and LinkedIn.

The translucent blobs, known as by-the-wind sailors (Velella velella), began piling up Sunday (March 30) along several beaches in the San Francisco Bay Area. Although the animals look like jellyfish, they're more closely related to the Portuguese man o' war (Physalia physalis).

Each creature, which can grow up to 4 inches (10 centimeters) long, is actually a colony of hundreds of smaller organisms with specialized functions. The velellas' S-shaped sails crest the surface of the ocean, carrying them through the warm waters they call home, while their short tentacles hang below the water to catch their prey.

By-the-wind sailors' stings are relatively mild compared with those of their more dangerous cousins, though experts recommend that you avoid touching your face or eyes after coming into contact with one.

Related: The weirdest creatures to wash ashore

These blobs have turned up en masse on beaches around the world before, usually in the spring and early summer. The creatures typically live in the open ocean, but large storms blowing in over the coast can propel them onto shore.

"This time of year the ocean along the west coast transitions into upwelling season," Jennifer Stock, an education specialist at Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary in California, told SFGate. Upwelling occurs when cold, nutrient-rich water rises from deep in the ocean.

"The true start/end of that season shifts every year based on a wide set of variables, but the presence of velellas indicates a shift in winds and currents, and the velellas, which are propelled by wind/current alone, get directed to the beaches," Stock said.

Because the velellas can't steer themselves, they get stranded on the beach until either the tide carries them back out to sea or they die. Recent northward winds and storms have carried the animals to the Bay Area over the past week — and experts predict more could wash up in the coming days.

"I would say if we get a nice high pressure system, which is generally associated with nice clear skies, but also upwelling, it's going to really concentrate them just offshore," Raphael Kudela, an oceanographer at the University of California, Santa Cruz, told KQED. "And then all we need is a break in that — a low [pressure system] coming through or the high weakening — and then we would probably see a nice big raft of them come washing into the beaches."

"It's kind of cool to see," Kudela added. "They're really beautiful."

The continental breakup spewed over 3.8 million cubic miles (16 million cubic kilometers) of magma that still persists as volcanic rocks in South America, in Africa, and on the seafloor of the Atlantic Ocean. In some places in Namibia and Angola, these volcanic rock layers are up to 0.6 mile (1 kilometer) thick.

The new study — which combines multiple sources of previously collected data from South America, Africa and the ocean floor — finds that the main magma eruptions occurred between 135 million and 131 million years ago, with a peak around 134.5 million years ago. This improved understanding of the eruption timing could give researchers a better idea of what triggered the breakup as well as its impacts on the climate.

"We get some extinctions and also some perturbations on the climate" around 134.5 million years ago, said study lead author Mohamed Mansour Abdelmalak, a geologist and geophysicist at the University of Oslo in Norway. Knowing the precise age of the magma helps tie the eruptions to these events.

The new research also finds evidence of a "thermal anomaly" beneath what was then southern Pangaea, the supercontinent that began breaking up 200 million years ago into the continents present today. This breakup was slow, with South America and Africa splitting 135 million years ago, and North American not completing its schism with Europe until 55 million years ago. Previous research has suggested that the breakup of southern Pangaea happened, in part, because of what's known as a mantle plume — a rising column of superhot rock from Earth's middle layer, the mantle. These plumes melt and thin the continental crust from below.

The new research hints that the thermal anomaly that helped separate South America and Africa may have been caused by that mantle plume, Abdelmalak told Live Science, but the hypothesis is still controversial.

"We don't have many samples, so we don't know exactly if this volcanism is related to the mantle plume," he said. Samples are particularly needed from the rock that now sits under the deep ocean off the coast of Argentina and Uruguay, where very little deep-sea drilling has been done, he said.

There is a modern-day example of a mantle plume leading to outpourings of magma in Iceland, however, Abdelmalak said. There, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge — which is still pulling apart at a rate of 0.8 to 2 inches (2 to 5 centimeters) a year — is on land. This land has been formed by the Iceland hotspot, which studies suggest is driven by a plume reaching deep into the mantle.

Additional deep rock samples from Africa and the deep ocean could help researchers understand how much magma erupted during the split between Africa and South America and how the eruptions affected the climate, Abdelmalak said. In most large eruptions, the climate warms because volcanoes spew huge amounts of greenhouse gases. But there was a period of cooling 134 million years ago, which may have been because the magma that erupted broke down, or weathered, quickly. In weathering, rocks break down and chemically react with the air, pulling carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.

The findings appear in the May issue of the journal Earth-Science reviews.

The new research, conducted in lab mice, found that the two hormones work together to direct immune cells located near the spinal cord. These cells then make their own painkillers — namely, an opioid called enkephalin. The opioids are released in response to nerve injuries, but only in females, the study revealed.

In the absence of an injury, both male and female mice make a baseline amount of enkephalin using these special immune cells, said first study author Elora Midavaine, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). "But after injury, the levels go up in females but not in males," she said.

In this way, the immune cells that make the painkillers, called regulatory T cells (Tregs), are interrupting pain signals triggered by neurons in the spinal cord, and this essentially prevents those signals from ever reaching the brain.

Related: Is there really a difference between male and female brains? Emerging science is revealing the answer.

"We weren't expecting those cells [Tregs] to play an active role in pain processing at all, and specifically not in a very sex-specific manner," Midavaine told Live Science. "It puzzled us for quite a while, and we at first kind of doubted those findings."

Down the line, this research could help unravel sex differences in human pain perception, as well as how pain perception shifts during pregnancy and menopause, when the body's levels of estrogen and progesterone change dramatically. Eventually, the work could point to new ways of treating pain, the study authors say.

Immune cells in pain processing

Many studies point to differences in how men and women experience pain.

In general, research finds that, compared with men, women show higher sensitivity to pain — meaning they feel the sensation more intensely when their pain receptors are activated. Research also finds they also have lower pain thresholds, so less stimulation is needed to activate the receptors in the first place.

These patterns are seen across different types of pain, including that caused by extreme temperatures, mechanical pressure and inflammation, and they've also been reported in studies of various male and female animals, hinting at biological underpinnings.

Women also experience higher rates of chronic pain than men do. Some differences in human pain may be cultural, tied to how each gender is socialized to cope with pain and how likely they are to seek help for it. However, research also points to biological differences in how pain is processed in the male body versus the female body.

In the new study, Midavaine, Dr. Sakeen Kashem, an assistant professor of dermatology at UCSF and co-senior author of the new study, and their colleagues wanted to better understand how immune cells might be talking to the nervous system to change pain signaling, and whether there were any sex differences in that process. Work from other labs had suggested that T cells play a role in pain perception in female mice, for instance, while pain in male mice relies on a different type of cell.

Tregs are a type of T cell, so the scientists wondered how they fit into the picture.

"We started looking at Tregs just because they're the brakes of the immune system," Kashem told Live Science. "So the question was, 'What if we just remove them?'"

An unexpected difference between the sexes

In their new study, published Thursday (April 3) in the journal Science, the researchers focused on Tregs located within the meninges — membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. These membranes house immune cells and route signals from the peripheral nerves, which sense pain, to the brain, and vice versa.

Using a toxin, the team deleted the vast majority of Tregs from the meninges of male and female mice, finding that only the females became more sensitive to mechanical pain caused by pressure. In another experiment, the team subjected both sexes of mice to nerve injuries and also depleted their Tregs. Again, they found that the depletion increased the females' — but not the males' — reactions to the pain.

Then, the team used a different technique to increase the number of Tregs in the mice. This had the opposite effect in the females — it decreased their pain — while it had no effect on the males.

The researchers wondered if sex hormones might play a role in this female-specific mechanism. They used various techniques to mess with the estrogen and progesterone levels in the mice. They found that blocking the effects of both hormones seemed to make Tregs work less well in females, leading them to become more pain-sensitive. Conversely, increasing the levels of both hormones amplified the pain desensitization mediated by Tregs.

Separately, the team has also collected some early data in pregnant mice: They've found that, as the levels of female sex hormones go up, so too does the pain-relieving activity of the Tregs.

Through further experiments, the team identified the opioid enkephalin as the mediator of this effect, finding that it blocked pain neurons from sending signals. What they don't know yet is how the sex hormones instruct immune cells to make the opioid.

"There is for sure a signal that activates those Tregs," Midavaine said. "We haven't pinpointed that signal just yet."

Pain research facing uncertain future

The study raises questions about what might happen in menopause, when the body's production of female sex hormones plummets. It also raises questions about what alternative mechanism for pain relief exists in males, given that they lack the mechanism described in the new study, said co-senior author Allan Basbaum, professor and chair of the UCSF Department of Anatomy.

Looking ahead, the work could inspire new ways of treating pain, Kashem suggested. For instance, could there be ways of increasing the number of opioid-releasing Tregs around the spinal cord, or delivering lab-made enkephalin to perform the same function?

There are many directions the team could take in future studies, the researchers noted. But crucially, they wouldn't have uncovered this female-specific mechanism if they had not included female mice in their research.

Related: 'Let's just study males and keep it simple': How excluding female animals from research held neuroscience back, and could do so again

The study was funded, in part, by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which has long upheld a policy that requires grantees to include both male and female animals in their research, unless they have very strong scientific justification to include only one sex. Recently, though, the NIH appeared to archive that policy, and it is unclear whether it will continue to be upheld.

This potential policy shift comes at a time when executive orders have prompted major science institutions to reconsider projects containing certain words, such as "women" and "female."

"There's a concern now that because of all the stuff coming out of Washington, that's a no-no," Basbaum said. "I'm curious to know what would happen had we started this study now."

In the context of pain research, there are established differences between the sexes in the rates of pain disorders, the effects of pain-relieving drugs, and the way pain processing works at the cellular level, Midavaine noted.

"It really is fundamental to study both sexes," she emphasized. Without major funders like the NIH requiring scientists to study both sexes, "I think many labs may just decide to perform research on males, as it's been done for many years before. And you might miss a lot of very critical findings."

The experiment, called Auroral Waves Excited by Substorm Onset Magnetic Events, or AWESOME, is led by researchers from the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF). Two of three planned sounding rockets launched from the Poker Flat Research Range north of Fairbanks, Alaska, in the early morning hours on March 25.

As the two rockets flew high into auroras, they released puffs of gas known as vapor tracers that created colorful light shows visible across much of northern Alaska. The movements of these vapor tracers can be recorded and studied from the ground used to measure atmospheric winds and flows of charged particles in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere, according to NASA.

"I'm extremely pleased that we were able to get the conditions to line up to allow us to launch and to conduct the experiment," Mark Conde, lead researcher from the Geophysical Institute and UAF space physics professor, said in a statement. "I am absolutely delighted."

Related: 32 stunning photos of auroras seen from space

The first sounding rocket to launch for the experiment was a 42-foot Terrier-Improved Malemute rocket.

Shortly after, a 70-foot, four-stage Black Brant XII rocket launched. The sounding rockets released vapor tracers and pressure sensors at different heights across central and northern Alaska during a sudden auroral substorm, which is a sudden, brief, and explosive intensification, or brightening, of an aurora. The Malemute rocket also measured magnetic perturbations caused by the aurora.

The small free-flying instruments released during the experiment will help gauge how the energy and momentum injected into Earth's middle and lower thermosphere by auroral substorms may disrupt its stability. Understanding the interaction between Earth's upper atmosphere and auroras — which are caused by charged particles from the sun interacting with Earth's magnetic field and atmosphere — can, in turn, help improve space weather forecasting.

During the launch, UAF student and staff researchers were located at ground stations in Utqiagvik, Kaktovik, Toolik Lake, Eagle, Venetie, and Poker Flat in Alaska, allowing project scientists to get many different views of the experiment.

"Because we had the two-stage rockets deploying over central Alaska and the four-stage rocket deploying off the north coast of Alaska, we essentially were conducting two independent tracer experiments at the same time," Conde said in the statement. "And because the camera locations we needed were completely different for each of those rockets, we needed many camera sites to be clear at the same time."

The launch of the third rocket — a two-stage Terrier-Improved Malemute — was delayed due to an issue with the motor that needed to be assessed for repair. The team is investigating a minor anomaly in a wiring harness for one of the motor stages and hopes to launch the third rocket before April 6, when the experiment's launch window closes, according to the statement.

The third rocket is expected to launch additional tracers, which must be released during dawn hours so that sunlight shining in the upper altitudes can activate the vapor tracers while it is still dark enough on the ground for cameras to photograph their response to air movement.

Originally posted on Space.com.

The drug, called nitisinone, is currently used to treat two genetic conditions: tyrosinemia type 1 and alkaptonuria. The drug works by inhibiting an enzyme called 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD), which is involved in a chain of chemical reactions known as the tyrosine detoxification pathway. By blocking the enzyme, nitisinone prevents the accumulation of harmful chemicals in the bodies of patients with these genetic conditions.

But recent research has also shown that blood-sucking insects — including mosquitoes in the genus Anopheles, which spread the Plasmodium parasites behind malaria — need HPPD to digest their blood meals.

Now, a study published March 26 in the journal Science Translational Medicine provides early evidence to suggest that treating human blood with nitisinone makes the blood lethal to Anopheles mosquitoes. By messing with the HPPD enzyme, the drug effectively makes it so mosquitoes can't detoxify an amino acid found in blood, called tyrosine, so they die after eating.

Related: DNA from dozens of human skeletons unravels history of malaria

With further research, nitisinone could potentially be repurposed as a new malaria-control method, the scientists behind the research hope. Devising additional control methods could be especially helpful given that mosquitoes are becoming ever more resistant to the traditional insecticides used to kill them.

That said, nitisinone is not a "silver bullet," said study co-author Alvaro Acosta-Serrano, a professor of molecular parasitology and vector biology at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana. The drug will not prevent people from getting infected with malaria, nor cure people who are already infected, he told Live Science. But nitisinone could reduce the transmission of the disease by shrinking the population of mosquitoes that carry Plasmodium parasites, he said.

In the new study, the researchers ran several lab experiments to determine the minimum concentration of nitisinone that would be needed to kill Anopheles mosquitoes. Using the lowest dose possible can help reduce the risk of potential side effects in people taking the drug, as well as decrease the likelihood that mosquitoes would become resistant to it over time, Acosta-Serrano said.

The researchers found that when Anopheles mosquitoes were fed human blood samples containing nitisinone, the insects died. This was true regardless of whether the mosquitoes were resistant to traditional insecticides.

In another experiment, the researchers modeled how nitisinone stacked up against ivermectin, a common drug used to treat various parasitic diseases in humans, including malaria; it's intended to kill parasites in the body but not to kill mosquitoes that bite people. The team found that nitisinone was more effective than ivermectin at killing mosquitoes.

A single dose of nitisinone (approximately 0.1 milligram per kilogram of body weight) could make someone's blood deadly to mosquitoes for around five days, they found. However, no mosquito mortality was observed for "any single dose of ivermectin," the team reported.

In a separate analysis, the researchers fed mosquitoes blood samples from three patients with alkaptonuria who regularly took 2 mg of nitisinone a day. All of the mosquitoes died within 12 hours of feeding. Blood from a patient with alkaptonuria who had not started the treatment was not toxic to mosquitoes.

Taken together, these findings suggest that nitisinone therapy could be a promising new malaria-control method. However, the researchers cautioned that there are still many hurdles to overcome before the drug could be used for this purpose.

For example, the safety of nitisinone still needs to be tested in healthy individuals in the general population, particularly those who live in areas of the world where malaria is common. If the drug were to be used for malaria control, it would be taken by people who otherwise have no need for the treatment, so it would have to have very minimal or no side effects to be worth it.

Scientists will also have to test how nitisinone interacts with common antimalarial drugs, which would still be needed to treat patients with malaria.

Finally, the exact reasons why blocking the tyrosine detoxification pathway is lethal to blood-feeding insects are still unknown, Acosta-Serrano said. Understanding nitisinone's mechanism of action would help scientists predict how easily mosquitoes could become resistant to the drug, he added.

Construction workers found the remains in a mass grave beneath a sports field in the city's southern Simmering district during renovations in October 2024.

The remains have now been extensively studied, and the find was announced by the city's authorities Wednesday (April 2).

According to the translated statement, the individuals in the mass grave were exclusively men, some of whom were buried with distinctive armor and weapons that established that they'd been Roman soldiers. Many had injuries on their bones caused by weapons like lances, daggers and swords, which indicated that their deaths were due to fighting, the statement said.

Related: Archaeologists may have finally discovered famous 'lost' canal built by Julius Caesar's uncle

The discovery suggests the soldiers were killed while fighting with Germanic warriors along the northern frontier of the Roman Empire, which was known as the Germanic Limes. The site of the mass grave is only a few miles from Vindobona, now in central Vienna, which was a major Roman military fort until the Germanic invasions in the fifth century.

Rare Roman burials

Archaeologists said the discovery of the mass grave is especially important because the Romans often cremated their dead, and so Roman inhumation burials from this time have rarely been found.

"In the Roman Empire, there were strict burial rituals and precise rules that had to be observed even for the time after death," Kristina Adler-Wölfl, head of the city's archaeological department, said in the statement. "Since cremations were common in the European parts of the Roman Empire at the time around 100 AD, body burials are an absolute exception."

Examinations have shown that the dead in the mass grave were exclusively male, with an average height of about 5 feet, 7 inches (1.7 meters)—a few inches taller than the average Roman legionary, but then Germanic warriors were about the same height. They seem to have been buried in no recognizable order or physical orientation, and had been generally in good health until their violent deaths, according to an analysis of their bones and teeth.

"The injuries to the bones are clearly due to fighting," said Michaela Binder, a bioarchaeologist with the archaeology firm Novetus, which the city has contracted to investigate the find.

"From the arrangement of the skeletons, and since they are purely male remains, it can be ruled out that the site of the find is connected to a military hospital or the like, or that an epidemic was the cause of death," she said.

Roman stronghold

Thousands of Roman soldiers were stationed at the Vindobona fort at its height in the third century A.D., and the nearby settlement was home to about 20,000 people. Several written accounts survive about Roman soldiers fighting with Germanic warriors along the frontier, but the mass grave is the first physical evidence of fighting at this time and place.

The city authorities said in the statement that the mass grave may have been caused by a major battle in the area, which was then used by the Romans as a reason to expand the fort's defenses and garrison of soldiers.

Archaeologists are still analyzing the remains from the mass grave and the many artifacts found there, which include a dagger, pieces of armor and the nails from shoes. The researchers hope ancient DNA analysis and isotope analysis of the bones will reveal more about the origins and the living conditions of the soldiers buried there.

Roman emperor quiz: Test your knowledge on the rulers of the ancient empire

Unlike classical computers, quantum computers harness quantum mechanical effects — like superposition and entanglement — to process and store data in a form beyond the 0s and 1s that are digital bits. These "quantum bits" — or qubits — could open up massive computing power.

That means quantum computers may solve complex problems that have stymied scientists for decades, such as modeling the behavior of subatomic particles or cracking the "traveling salesman" problem, which aims to calculate the shortest trip between a bunch of cities that returns to its original destination. But this massive power also may give hackers the upper hand.

"Like many powerful technologies, you can use [quantum computing] for great good," Rebecca Krauthamer, a technological ethicist and CEO of cybersecurity firm QuSecure, told Live Science. "And you can also use it for malicious purposes."

When usable quantum computers first come online, most people — and even most large organizations — will still rely on classical computers. Cryptographers therefore need to come up with ways to protect data from powerful quantum computers, using programs that can run on a regular laptop.

That's where the field of post-quantum cryptography comes in. Several groups of scientists are racing to develop cryptographic algorithms that can evade hacking by quantum computers before they are rolled out. Some of these cryptographic algorithms rely on newly developed equations, while others are turning to centuries-old ones. But all have one thing in common: They can't be easily cracked by algorithms that run on a quantum computer.

The foundations of cryptography

Cryptography dates back thousands of years; the earliest known example is a cipher carved into ancient Egyptian stone in 1900 B.C. But the cryptography used by most software systems today relies on public key algorithms. In these systems, the computer uses algorithms — which often involve factoring the product of two large prime numbers — to generate both a public key and a private key. The public key is used to scramble the data, while the private key, which is available only to the sender, can be used to unscramble the data.

To crack such cryptography, hackers and other malefactors often must factor the products of very large prime numbers or try to find the private key by brute force — essentially throwing out guesses and seeing what sticks. This is a hard problem for classical computers because they have to test each guess one after another, which limits how quickly the factors can be identified.

A 100-story skyscraper on a three-story building

Nowadays, classical computers often stitch together multiple encryption algorithms, implemented at different locations, such as a hard disk or the internet.

"You can think of algorithms like building bricks," Britta Hale, a computer scientist at the Naval Postgraduate School, told Live Science (Hale was speaking strictly in her capacity as an expert and not on behalf of the school or any organization.) When the bricks are stacked, each one makes up a small piece of the fortress that keeps out hackers.

But most of this cryptographic infrastructure was built on a foundation developed in the 1990s and early 2000s, when the internet was much less central to our lives and quantum computers were mainly thought experiments. "It's like a foundation for a three-story building, and then we built a 100-story skyscraper on it," Michele Mosca, co-founder and CEO of cybersecurity company evolutionQ, told Live Science. "And we're kind of praying it's OK."

It might take a classical computer thousands or even billions of years to crack a really hard prime factorization algorithm, but a powerful quantum computer can often solve the same equation in a few hours. That's because a quantum computer can run many calculations simultaneously by exploiting quantum superposition, in which qubits can exist in multiple states at once. In 1994, American mathematician Peter Shor showed that quantum computers can efficiently run algorithms that will quickly solve prime-number factoring problems. As a result, quantum computers could, in theory, tear down the cryptographic fortresses we currently use to protect our data.

Post-quantum cryptography aims to replace obsolete building blocks with less-hackable bricks, piece by piece. And the first step is to find the right math problems to use. In some cases, that means returning to equations that have been around for centuries.

Currently, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is looking at four problems as potential foundations for post-quantum cryptography. Three belong to a mathematical family known as structured lattices. These problems ask questions about the vectors — mathematical terms that describe direction and magnitude between interconnected nodes — like the connection points in a spiderweb, Mosca said. These lattices can theoretically have an infinite number of nodes and exist in multiple dimensions.

Experts believe lattice problems will be hard for a quantum computer to crack because, unlike some other cryptographic algorithms, lattice problems don't rely on factoring massive numbers.

Instead, they use the vectors between nodes to create a key and encrypt the data. Solving these problems may involve, for example, calculating the shortest vector in the lattice, or trying to determine which vectors are closest to one another. If you have the key — often a "good" starting vector — these problems may be relatively easy. But without that key, they are devilishly hard. That's because no one has devised an algorithm, like Shor's algorithm, that can efficiently solve these problems using quantum computing architecture.

The fourth problem that NIST is considering belongs to a group called hash functions. Hash functions work by taking the virtual key for unlocking a specific point on a data table, scrambling that key and compressing it into a shorter code. This type of algorithm is already a cornerstone of modern cybersecurity, so in theory, it should be more straightforward to upgrade classical computers to a quantum-proof version compared with other post-quantum cryptographic schemes, Mosca said. And similarly to structured lattices, they can't easily be solved by brute force alone; you need some clue as to what's going on inside the "black box" key generator to figure them out within the age of the universe.

But these four problems don't cover all of the potentially quantum-safe algorithms in existence. For example, the European Commission is looking at an error-correcting code known as the McEliece cryptosystem. Developed more than 40 years ago by American engineer Robert McEliece, this system uses random number generation to create a public and private key, as well as an encryption algorithm. The recipient of the private key uses a fixed cipher to decrypt the data.

McEliece encryption is largely considered both faster and more secure than the most commonly used public-key cryptosystem, called Rivest-Shamir-Adleman. As with a hash function, would-be hackers need some insight into its black-box encryption to solve it. On the plus side, experts consider this system very safe; on the downside, even the keys to unscramble the data must be processed using extremely large, cumbersome matrices, requiring a lot of energy to run.

A similar error-correcting code, known as Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC), was recently selected by NIST as a backup to its primary candidates. Its primary advantage over the classic McEliece system is that it utilizes smaller key and ciphertext sizes.

Another type of algorithm that sometimes comes up in conversations about post-quantum cryptography is the elliptic curve, Bharat Rawal, a computer and data scientist at Capitol Technology University in Maryland, told Live Science. These problems go back at least to ancient Greece. Elliptic curve cryptography exploits basic algebra — calculating the points on a curved line — to encrypt keys. Some experts believe a new elliptic curve algorithm could evade hacking by a quantum computer. However, others argue that a hacker could hypothetically use Shor's algorithm on a quantum computer to break most known elliptic curve algorithms, making them a less-secure option.

No silver bullet

In the race to find quantum-safe cryptographic equations, there won't be a silver bullet or a one-size-fits-all solution. For example, there's always a trade-off in processing power; it wouldn't make much sense to use complex, power-hungry algorithms to secure low-priority data when a simpler system might be perfectly adequate.

"It's not like one algorithm [combination] will be the way to go; it depends on what they're protecting," Hale said.

In fact, it's valuable for organizations that use classical computers to have more than one algorithm that can protect their data from quantum threats. That way, "if one is proven to be vulnerable, you can easily switch to one that was not proven vulnerable," Krauthamer said. Krauthamer's team is currently working with the U.S. Army to improve the organization's ability to seamlessly switch between quantum-safe algorithms — a feature known as cryptographic agility.

Even though useful (or "cryptographically relevant") quantum computers are still several years away, it is vital to start preparing for them now, experts said. "It can take many years to upgrade existing systems to be ready for post-quantum cryptography," Douglas Van Bossuyt, a systems engineer at the Naval Postgraduate School, told Live Science in an email. (Van Bossuyt was speaking strictly as a subject-matter expert and not on behalf of the Naval Postgraduate School, the Navy or the Department of Defense.) Some systems are tough to upgrade from a coding standpoint. And some, such as those aboard military craft, can be difficult — or even impossible — for scientists and engineers to access physically.

Other experts agree that post-quantum cryptography is a pressing issue. "There's also the chance that, again, because quantum computers are so powerful, we won't actually know when an organization gets access to such a powerful machine," Krauthamer said.

There's also the threat of "harvest-now, decrypt-later" attacks. Malicious actors can scoop up sensitive encrypted data and save it until they have access to a quantum computer that's capable of cracking the encryption. These types of attacks can have a wide range of targets, including bank accounts, personal health information and national security databases. The sooner we can protect such data from quantum computers, the better, Van Bossuyt said.

And as with any cybersecurity approach, post-quantum cryptography won't represent an end point. The arms race between hackers and security professionals will continue to evolve well into the future, in ways that we can only begin to predict. It may mean developing encryption algorithms that run on a quantum computer as opposed to a classical one or finding ways to thwart quantum artificial intelligence, Rawal said.

"The world needs to keep working on this because if these [post-quantum equations] are broken, we don't want to wait 20 years to come up with the replacement," Mosca said.

"If refined and proven safe, spermatogonial stem cell (SSC) transplantation could be a revolutionary fertility-restoring technique for men who've lost the ability to produce sperm," Dr. Justin Houman, an assistant professor of urology at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center who was not involved in the study, told Live Science in an email.

It could be especially helpful for "cancer survivors treated before puberty or men with genetic or acquired testicular failure," he added.

So what does this experimental treatment involve?

Related: Sperm cells carry traces of childhood stress, epigenetic study finds

Sperm-forming stem cells are at the core of the therapy. These cells, found in the testicles even before puberty, typically mature into sperm when testosterone levels rise during adolescence.

But medical conditions — like a blockage in the reproductive tract or certain genetic mutations or hormonal problems — and treatments such as chemotherapy can damage these stem cells or block their development into sperm, thus leading to infertility.

If a young patient wishes to preserve their sperm-forming stem cells for future use, doctors can use an ultrasound-guided needle to collect the stem cells into the rete testis — a network of small tubes that connects to the seminiferous tubules, where sperm are typically produced. The needle is carefully inserted into these tubes through the base of the scrotum, and once collected, the stem cells are frozen.

Later on, doctors can then reintroduce the preserved stem cells into the rete testis, using a similar, ultrasound-guided technique. The goal is for the cells to implant in the seminiferous tubules, where they can mature and begin producing sperm, mimicking the natural process that occurs during puberty.

This procedure has previously been tested in animals, and it successfully enabled male mice and monkeys to produce sperm and father offspring.

Now, researchers have documented the technique's first use in humans. According to a paper published March 26 on preprint server medRxiv, a man in his early 20s has now received a transplant of his own, once-frozen stem cells. He had his sperm-forming stem cells preserved as a child, before he underwent chemotherapy for bone cancer.

If the stem-cell transplant is successful, the man's body should begin producing sperm, which was not possible before the procedure due to azoospermia. So far, ultrasounds have confirmed that the transplantation procedure didn't damage the patient's testicular tissue, and his hormone levels are normal.

No sperm have been detected in his semen yet, but the researchers are continuing to analyze his semen twice a year to see if the reproductive cells show up.

One possible reason for the lack of detectable sperm, according to the researchers, is that only a small quantity of stem cells were collected in the patient's childhood, to minimize harm to his tissues. That means the number of preserved and transplanted cells capable of developing into sperm remains low. As a result, sperm production may be limited.

Related: 100 million-year-old sperm is the oldest ever found. And it's giant.

If sperm do not ever appear in the patient's ejaculate but the patient wants to father children, doctors could attempt to recover, via surgery, any small amount of sperm made by the stem cells.

Dr. Laura Gemmell, a reproductive and endocrinology fellow at the Columbia University Fertility Center, suggested another alternative: a technique called the Sperm Tracking and Recovery (STAR) System. This is a machine developed at the Columbia University Fertility Center that combines artificial intelligence technology, robotics, and microfluidics, a technology that uses tiny channels to analyze fluid within a device. This tech identifies and recovers extremely scarce sperm cells from an ejaculate, she told Live Science in an email.

It takes only one sperm to conceive a child, Gemmel noted. "If we can find that sperm noninvasively, we can inject that single sperm into an egg and make an embryo," Gemmel said.

She added that, "our field has seen success with ovarian cryopreservation and retransplantation in young girls with childhood cancers. I'm hopeful that in the future, we can provide an option for young boys who want to one day father a biologic child."

As with all medical procedures, sperm stem cell transplants come with some risks.

For example, there's a chance that a fraction of the transplanted stem cells have cancer-causing genetic mutations and could someday develop into a tumor, especially in patients who've had leukemia in the past, Houman said. And even though the procedure uses the patient's own cells, there's a "theoretical risk" that the immune system could still react and trigger inflammation, he said.

There are also ethical concerns around freezing the sperm stem cells from young boys — namely, how can doctors be sure the children can fully consent to the procedure, and that they have clear expectations around the long-term storage of their cells?

"We need to proceed cautiously, and with rigorous oversight," he said. "This is promising science — but it's still early days."

Editor's note: This story was updated on April 7, 2025, to correct the spelling of Dr. Laura Gemmell's name.

The mummies are the remains of women who once lived in the "Green Sahara," also known as the African Humid Period. Between 14,500 and 5,000 years ago, the now-inhospitable Sahara was a humid and verdant savanna, home to humans who hunted and eventually herded animals alongside lakes and rivers.

DNA from the two mummies revealed that the never-before-seen North African lineage was distinct and isolated from populations living in sub-Saharan Africa around the same time. The findings, reported April 2 in the journal Nature, suggest there was little genetic exchange across the Green Sahara during this time, though some cultural practices may have spread through the region.

Between 2003 and 2006, archaeologists unearthed the remains of 15 individuals in the Takarkori rock shelter, located near the middle of the Sahara in what is now southwestern Libya. The site included evidence of human occupation and pastoralism, or herding, dating back more than 8,000 years. Of the 15 individuals, most of whom were women and children, two had naturally mummified, which helped preserve their DNA.

"We were very fortunate to have samples preserved at this level," study co-author Nada Salem, a paleogeneticist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany, told Science magazine. The region's high temperatures can quickly break down the DNA in human remains, leaving few examples of ancient DNA in the region.

A 2019 study examined mitochondrial DNA from the same remains. However, mitochondrial DNA, which is only inherited from the mother, doesn't provide as much information about population dynamics as DNA from chromosomes, which is inherited from both parents. To obtain this genome-wide data, the researchers extracted preserved DNA from the mummified remains and compared it with DNA from about 800 present-day individuals from Africa, the Near East and southern Europe, along with 117 ancient genomes from the same regions.

Related: Could the Sahara ever be green again?

The Takarkori individuals possessed genetic markers distinct from populations in sub-Saharan Africa, the team found, suggesting they were from a previously unknown and relatively isolated lineage that diverged from sub-Saharan African populations some 50,000 years ago. But the individuals did have some ancestors from the Levant, a stretch of land bordering the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The Takarkori DNA also showed traces of Neanderthal ancestry that could only have been acquired outside of Africa, as Neanderthals lived in Eurasia. But the mummies' genomes contained 10 times less Neanderthal DNA than those of people living outside of Africa today.

The findings suggest that the Green Sahara didn't act as a migration corridor between sub-Saharan Africa and northern Africa. However, archaeological evidence suggests that cultural exchange between the regions did occur.

"We know now that they were isolated in terms of genetics, but not in cultural terms," study co-author Savino di Lernia, an archaeologist at Sapienza University of Rome, told CNN. "There's a lot of networks that we know from several parts of the continent, because we have pottery coming from sub-Saharan Africa. We have pottery coming from the Nile Valley and the like."

The rise of pastoralism in the Sahara also likely arose from interactions with other groups that were raising domesticated animals at the time, rather than through large-scale migrations, the researchers suspected.

This isolated lineage no longer exists in its original form today, but at some point people from this lineage mingled with outsiders, which is why some people living in North Africa today have inherited pieces of this genetic heritage, the researchers found.

"By shedding light on the Sahara's deep past, we aim to increase our knowledge of human migrations, adaptations, and cultural evolution in this key region," di Lernia said in a statement.

On March 28, the American space agency announced that Starship was being added to the NASA Launch Services (NLS) II contract, which lists all the privately built spacecraft that can be considered for future missions. Starship is the 10th rocket to be added to the contract, which also includes SpaceX's Super Heavy and Falcon 9. Other listed rockets include United Launch Alliance's new Vulcan Centaur and Northrop Grumman's Pegasus XL, which has been used by NASA since the early 1990s.

The contract does not guarantee Starship's use in any NASA missions. However, there is also no upper limit on how many times each rocket in the contract can be selected for missions between now and the end of the contract's current lifespan in December 2032.

The launch vehicles listed in the NLS II contract are separated into three groups based on how they have performed in the past: Category 1 (high risk), Category 2 (medium risk) and Category 3 (low risk), with Category 3 rockets the most likely to be used in missions.

It is unclear which category Starship will be put in. However, Blue Origin's New Glenn rocket, which was the most recent rocket to be added to the NLS II, was initially listed in Category 1, despite successfully making it to orbit on the first attempt in January. This suggests that Starship will likely be put in the same bracket, according to Space News.

Related: SpaceX rockets keep tearing blood-red 'atmospheric holes' in the sky, and scientists are concerned

SpaceX aims to have Starship operational in time for the third Artemis mission, currently slated for mid-2027, which will put humans back on the moon for the first time since 1972. However, the initial test flights may raise questions about that timeline.

The company's CEO Elon Musk has repeatedly expressed a strong desire to use Starship to send humans to Mars.

Musk's plans to expand Starbase — a spaceport in Texas dedicated to future Starship production and launches — in addition to his close ties to the Trump administration and incoming NASA administrator Jared Isaacman, may have influenced the decision to include Starship in NLS II despite its recent issues, Futurism reported.

Explosive tests

Starship is the world's tallest rocket, standing 403 feet (123 meters) tall when perched upright on a launchpad. It is made up of two stages, both of which are designed to be reusable, in a similar way to SpaceX's Falcon 9 rockets. To date, Starship has been launched eight times, with varying degrees of success.

The first test launch was carried out in April 2023. The rocket exploded around four minutes after liftoff, when engine failures caused it to go into an uncontrollable spin. Launch controllers then intentionally detonated the craft to prevent it from crashing back to the surface. However, the self-destruction took longer than expected and, as a result, large amounts of debris rained down on the area surrounding the launchpad, triggering a federal investigation and angering environmental groups.

During the second test, in November 2023, two different parts of the rocket exploded. First when the rocket's booster unexpectedly detonated shortly after separation, and again when the upper stage underwent a "rapid unscheduled disassembly." The latter punched a temporary hole in the upper atmosphere, studies later revealed.

Nothing exploded during the third test launch. However, SpaceX lost control of the rocket shortly after it entered suborbital flight, and it crashed back to Earth at an unknown location in the Indian Ocean. The next three test flights were less eventful, although none of the rockets' upper stages reached low-Earth orbit before crashing back into the same ocean.

However, this year, Starship experienced back-to-back explosions during the seventh test flight on Jan. 16 and the eighth test flight on March 6. The former was arguably the most impressive detonation yet, creating a spectacular fireball above the Caribbean and littering several islands with shrapnel, while also releasing large amounts of atmospheric pollution.

Despite the setbacks, the tests have yielded some positive results. For example, during the fourth, fifth and sixth test flights, SpaceX was able to land the rocket's first stage by catching it with robotic arms, like a pair of giant chopsticks. Every failed test also produces data that is useful to the scientists building the next iteration of the rocket.

The next test flight is scheduled for later this month, although the exact date is yet to be announced.

Philadelphia Zoo recently hatched eggs laid by an elderly western Santa Cruz Galápagos tortoise (Chelonoidis niger porteri), named Mommy. Her exact age is unknown, but Mommy has been at the zoo for more than 90 years.

Western Santa Cruz Galápagos tortoises are critically endangered in their native home of the Galápagos Islands, and there are fewer than 50 kept in U.S. zoos. This is the first time Philadelphia Zoo has hatched western Santa Cruz Galápagos tortoises in its more than 150-year history, according to a statement released by the zoo.

"This is a significant milestone in the history of Philadelphia Zoo, and we couldn’t be more excited to share this news with our city, region, and the world," Jo-Elle Mogerman, the president and CEO of Philadelphia Zoo, said in the statement. "Mommy arrived at the Zoo in 1932, meaning anyone that has visited the Zoo for the last 92 years has likely seen her."

Related: World's oldest tortoise still randy at 191 years old

Western Santa Cruz Galápagos tortoises are a subspecies of Galápagos tortoises. These giant tortoises are the largest tortoise species on Earth. Males are usually larger than females and grow up to around 1.8 meters (6 feet) long, tipping the scales at about 570 pounds (260 kilograms), according to the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance.

Human activity on the Galápagos has killed off several of its tortoise species and brought western Santa Cruz Galápagos tortoises to the brink of extinction. Historically, sailors reduced tortoise numbers by hunting them for meat. People have also disrupted their habitat and introduced invasive species such as goats, which compete with tortoises for food, and predators like cats and rats, which prey on young tortoises and their eggs, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List.

Mommy is part of a captive breeding program in U.S. zoos to help safeguard this tortoise subspecies. She finally reproduced for the first time with a male named Abrazzo — who is also around 100 years old. Abrazzo moved to Philadelphia in 2020 after previously living at the Riverbanks Zoo and Garden in South Carolina, which successfully bred western Santa Cruz Galápagos tortoises in 2019, according to the statement.

Tortoises and other reptiles usually remain capable of reproduction throughout their lives after reaching maturity, so they can keep breeding long into old age. Researchers aren't sure how long Galápagos tortoises can live, but one individual was recorded reaching the age of 171, according to the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance.

After mating, Mommy laid 16 eggs in November 2024. Keepers took the eggs and placed them in an artificial incubator. Like most tortoises and turtles, the sex of hatchling Galápagos tortoises is determined by the temperature at which eggs are incubated. Temperatures below 82.4 degrees Fahrenheit (28 degrees Celsius) produce males, while temperatures above 85.1 F (29.5 C) produce females. The keepers incubated half of the eggs at the male temperature and half at the female temperature to get a mix, but only female eggs have hatched so far, according to the statement.

Ashley Ortega, who coordinates the captive Galápagos tortoise Species Survival Plan at Gladys Porter Zoo in Texas, said in the statement that the program was "thrilled" to help welcome the hatchlings and noted that Mommy becoming the oldest first-time producing female of her species made the feat even more incredible.

"Prior to the hatchlings, there were only 44 individual Western Santa Cruz Giant tortoises in all U.S. zoos combined, so these newest additions represent a new genetic lineage and some much-needed help to the species' population," Ortega said. "We are excited to learn more about how we can replicate this success at other accredited zoos since the team in Philly has accomplished something that was seemingly impossible."

The migration could trigger colder-than-average temperatures in parts of the continent and across the eastern U.S. over the coming week, climate scientists say.

The polar vortex started wandering off course March 9, when its high winds suddenly switched from blowing west to east to blowing in the opposite direction. This switch normally happens each year, but it tends to occur in mid-April — meaning this year's reversal struck unusually early, according to a blog post published April 3 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

"For much of this winter season, the polar vortex has been strong," NOAA officials wrote in the blog post. "But like a true atmospheric diva, the polar vortex had one last trick up its sleeve, breaking down in a spectacular fashion and bringing some cold air with it."

Related: Bizarre polar vortex over Antarctica delayed ozone hole opening, scientists say

The Arctic polar vortex is a circle of strong, cold winds that picks up every winter over the North Pole. The vortex is always present, but it strengthens in the winter due to a redistribution of heat from the tropics. During the winter, the winds that make up the polar vortex blow from west to east. In spring, as Earth's tilt changes and the North Pole receives more sunlight, the direction of the winds changes to blow from east to west. The winds also become weaker as a result of less heat wafting from the tropics to the pole.

These winds are located in the stratosphere — a layer of the atmosphere that extends between around 6 and 31 miles (10 to 50 kilometers) above Earth's surface.

Occasional "sudden stratospheric warming" events can disrupt the polar vortex. These events happen when large-scale atmospheric waves, called Rossby waves, get pushed into the stratosphere from below, triggering sudden spikes in temperature. Like ocean waves, Rossby waves can "break" on top of the polar vortex, weakening it and — in extreme cases — reversing the direction of its winds.

Last year, a sudden stratospheric warming event hit the polar vortex and reversed its winds in early March, but the vortex recovered. This time, "the vortex does not seem likely to gain a foothold again," NOAA officials wrote.

The switch in wind direction doesn't mean the polar vortex will immediately drop off for the summer, however. The reversed polar vortex has simply "moved off the pole, meandering around over Northern Europe," officials wrote.

NOAA's latest forecasts suggest the polar vortex is unlikely to wander back to its normal position over the North Pole. It probably won't regain its wintertime strength either, officials said, so the likelihood is that it will dissipate and eventually "enter hibernation" over Northern Europe.

As it dissipates, the polar vortex will bring below-average temperatures to Northern Europe, parts of Asia and the eastern U.S., NOAA officials wrote. "Temperatures for the last week of March were pretty normal across the eastern U.S., but the latest forecasts do predict increased chances of below-normal temperatures for the next week," they wrote.