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Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles : two poems, one project

2018, Museum Sinicum

Abstract

I argue that Empedocles’s philosophical thought and his choice to compose poetry participate in a unified and consistent project, which is both aesthetic and intellectual. The medium Empedocles chose is part of his philosophical message, and the relationship that he constructs between poetry and philosophy is by nature one of necessity. Empedocles reforms the conception of poetry, by intertwining it with his original theories on cosmology, biology, and on the divine. He thus draws an essential connection between poetry and the philosophical thought that is expressed in his poem. This has effects on how he adapts traditional composition techniques of dactylic poetry to his original intent. He thus corrects the earlier dactylic poetic tradition from the inside. Furthermore, Empedocles reflects on the role of his philosophical knowledge in the Greek world, which is apparent from a study of his addressees (both internal and external). I argue, finally, that Empedocles’s project is unified through the poems On nature and the Purifications: the latter interprets the former as a counterpart to the crime that was committed by the daimon when he put his trust in Strife—at the expense of all the other gods or divine principles.

Key takeaways

  • corrects the earlier dactylic poetic tradition from the inside. Furthermore, Empedocles reflects on the role of his philosophical knowledge in the Greek world,which is apparent from a study of his addressees (both internal and external ). I argue, finally, that Empedocless project is unified through the poems On nature and the Purifications: the latter interprets the former as a counterpart to the crime that was committed by the daimon when he put his trust in Strife-at the expense of all the other gods or divine principles. The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationship between Empedocless choice to compose poems in dactylic hexameter,and his philosophical thought ① . I argue that his philosophical thought and his choice to compose poetry participate in a unified and consistent project, which is both aesthetic and intellectual. The medium Empedocles chose is part of his philosophical message, and the relationship that he constructs between poetry and philosophy is by nature one of necessity. I first provide a developed state of the art,in which I endeavour to make clear not only what are the main trends of interpretation of this issue as such,but also which stances underlined scholarly approaches to Empedocles even before this question was first raised. I then examine how Empedocles defines his poetic theory on the basis of a study of the Muse,and how this definition has consequences on his poetic practice. I finally examine the meaning he gave to his work in the context of Greek culture of the 5 th century,before proposing a new hypothesis on the relationship between his two poems. ① This paper presents the main conclusion of my 2017 book,enriched by three recent studies I have conducted since then on the relationship with Pindar,on Ritornell and episodic composition,and on the role of ethics in Empedocless On nature as a response to Hesiod. I also intend to make the main results and arguments more accessible to the English reader. The numbering of the fragments follows that of Diels and Kranz,although I essentially use Víteks 2006 edition;the numbering of On nature (that is,here,fr. 17 + ens. a)follows that of Laks and Most 2016. I am in favor of the twopoems hypothesis,although this idea is only necessary to the last part of the present paper. For a noteworthy exception,see for instance Most 1999. The question is whether prose treatises were used as a memento within the school by the master and his disciples (Pfeiffer 1968,p.29;Thesleff 1990,p.111) ;if they were sheer technical writings intended for specialists (Kahn 2003,p. 151) ;or if they were intended to disseminate outside the school. I agree with the latter view,which finds a strong argument in the fact that the treatise by Pherecydes of Syros opens with a play on the rhythm of the dactylic hexameter,in order to mark his difference from Hesiod;hence,the intended mode of diffusion was oral (on this aspect,I take the liberty to referring to my study,Gheerbrant 2018a) . The two other views are generally argued for on the basis of later sources or historical reconstructions,which are in my view not as strong. On the prose of Pherecydes and that of Anaximander,see Laks 2001. For the elements we have on the diffusion of prosetreatises in the 5 th and 4 th centuries,see Thomas 2003. Fr. 2.3 8a:πα5ρον δ #ν ζω6σι β$ ου μ+ρο !θρ$σαντε / 7κ& μοροι καπνο*ο δ$ κην !ρθ+ντε !π+πταν / α,τò μ"νον πεισθ+ντε,<τ προσ+κυρσεν -καστο / π'ντοσ #λαυν"μενοι,τò δ <λον [...]εKχεται ερε* ν• / ο"τω οKτ #πιδερκτ% τ'δ !νδρ'σιν οKτ #πακουστ' / οKτε ν"ωι περιληπτ'. ("Having seen that the portion of life attributed to their existence was short,they,quicktodie,borne in air just as smoke,they fly off,convinced only by that they happened to have met first,when they were driven in all directions-and that, he boasts [...]that he found it is the whole. In these conditions,men cannot perceive that with their eyes,or hear it,or comprehend it with their minds" ). Fr. 3.1 2:!λλ% θεο, τ%ν μ+ν μαν$ ην !ποτρ+ ψατε γλ;σση,/ # κ δ #σ$ ων στομ'των καθαρ*ν /χετε&σατε πηγ$ν ("But,gods,whereas you divert their madness from my tongue,from holy mouths derive a pure flow" ). The two main options are to consider it as an aorist subjunctive with a short thematic vowel,construed with μη to express a prohibition;or as a future indicative construed with μ$ (Bollack 1969,III,pp.31 32) . Elsewhere,I provided arguments against the second option. In favor of the Muse:Bollack 1969,III,p. 31;Trépanier 2004,p. 61. In favor of Pausanias:Wright 1995,p.161;Inwood 2001,216;Mansfeld and Primavesi 2011,p.442.
  • Fr. 3.9 13:!λλ% γ%ρ )θρει π$ παλ'μ(,π6 δ%λον -καστον,/ μ$τε τιν Pψιν !χων π$ στει πλ+ ον 3 κατ !κου$ν / 3 !κο*ν # ρ$ δουπον "π+ρ τραν;ματα γλ;σση,/ μ$τε τι τ%ν )λλων,#π"σ( π"ρο #στ, νο%σαι,/ γυ$ ων π$ στιν !ρυκε,ν"ει θ [ δ%λον -καστον. ("But,as a matter of fact,consider,yourself as a whole,by your palm,by which way each thing becomes evident,without accepting in your trust a visual perception rather than what you perceive according to the hearing,or resounding hearing over what the tongue makes clear,or do not keep off your trust from any other limb,by which there is a way to know,and know by which way each thing becomes evident." )
  • Fr. 121:...!τερπ+α χ%ρον,/ !νθα Φ"νο τε Κ"το τε κα, )λλων !θνεα Κηρ%ν / α,χμηρα$ τε Ν"σοι κα , Σ$ψιε !ργα τε Nευστ' / .τη !ν λειμ%να κατ% σκ"το (λ'σκουσιν. ("... A joyless place,where Slaughter,Rancour,and hordes of other violent (a(i).6 7)of the poem On nature ② are only partially readable,but the verseendings ε) -να κ"σμον and #ξ 4νò εAναι are repeated from two different passages of fr. 17 (l. 2 = On nature 234 and l. 7 = On ① ② I develop this point in an article to be published in 2018 in the Yearbook of Ancient Greek Epic (Gheerbrant 2018b) . On nature,lines 267 268 = ens. a (I).6 7:συνερχ"] μεθ ε) -να κ"σμον / δ$ εφυ πλ+] ον # ξ 4νò εA ναι ([through Love]we come together in one world,[ through Strife]it divided to be many from one" ). On nature 233 234 = 17.1 2:διπλ #ρ+ω. τοτ+ μ+ν γ%ρ Xν η,ξ$θη μ"νον εA ναι / #κ πλε"νων,τοτ+ δ α> δι+φυ πλ+ον #ξ 4νò εAναι ("A twofold tale I shall tell:at one time,it grew to be one from many,and at another it divided to be many from one" ). On nature 239 240 = 17.7 8:)λλοτε μ+ν Φιλ"τητι συνερχ"μεν ε) Xν -παντα / )λλοτε δ α> δ$χ -καστα φορε&μενα Νε$ κεο !χθει ("at one time all coming together through Love, at another again being borne away from each other by Strifes repulsion" ). Fr. 26.5 6:)λλοτε μ+ν Φιλ"τητι συνερχ"μεν ε) -να κ"σμον / )λλοτε δ α> δ$χ -καστα φορε & μενα Νε $ κεο !χθει ("at one time coming together into one world through Love,at another again being borne away from each other by Strifes repulsion" ). interpreted as a hypocoristic based on )γχι and θε". His name thus means "he who is close to the gods, "and we here find the same motif as in fragment 3. Pausaniass own name is a meaningful one,because it is composed of πα&ω," to make cease" ,and of !ν$η," grief,sorrow, distress."His name thus means "he whose distress ceases"or "he who makes (others)distress cease." ④ What does that mean in the context On nature 245 257 = fr. 17.14 26:!λλ )γε μ&θων κλ5θι• μ'θη γ'ρ τοι φρ+να αKξει• / !
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles:  Two Poems, One Project Xavier Gheerbrant Pour Philippe Rousseau Abstract I argue that Empedocless philosophical thought and his choice to compose poetry participate in a unified and consistent project which is , both aesthetic and intellectual. The medium Empedocles chose is part of his philosophical message and the relationship that he constructs between , poetry and philosophy is by nature one of necessity. Empedocles reforms the conception of poetry by intertwining it with his original theories on cosmology , , biology, and on the divine. He thus draws an essential connection between poetry and the philosophical thought that is expressed in his poem. This has effects on how he adapts traditional composition techniques of dactylic poetry to his original intent. He thus  My reflection benefited from the advices of Léna Bourgeois Anne de Cremoux Gérard Journée André Laks Sarah Lagrou JeanClaude Picot Philippe Rousseau Rossella Saetta Cottone and many other colleagues and friends. I am also grateful to the participants and organizers of the fascinating conference Comparing classical scholarships West and China Fudan 24 26 November 2017 and especially to Zhang Wei as well as to Wang Wei and Xian Ruobing. I thank James Mire for English language editing of this paper. , ( , , , , , , “ ), , , : , ” 170 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 corrects the earlier dactylic poetic tradition from the inside. Furthermore , Empedocles reflects on the role of his philosophical knowledge in the Greek world , which is apparent from a study of his addressees ( both internal and external ) . I argue, finally, that Empedocless project is unified through the poems On nature and the Purifications: the latter interprets the former as a counterpart to the crime that was committed by the daimon when he put his trust in Strife gods or divine principles. —at the expense of all the other The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationship between Empedocless choice to compose poems in dactylic hexameter and his , philosophical thought①. I argue that his philosophical thought and his choice to compose poetry participate in a unified and consistent project , which is both aesthetic and intellectual. The medium Empedocles chose is part of his philosophical message , and the relationship that he constructs between poetry and philosophy is by nature one of necessity. I first provide a developed state of the art in which I endeavour to , make clear not only what are the main trends of interpretation of this issue as such but also which stances underlined scholarly approaches to , Empedocles even before this question was first raised. I then examine how Empedocles defines his poetic theory on the basis of a study of the Muse and how this definition has consequences on his poetic practice. , I finally examine the meaning he gave to his work in the context of Greek culture of the 5 th century before proposing a new hypothesis on , the relationship between his two poems. ① This paper presents the main conclusion of my 2017 book enriched by three recent studies I have conducted since then on the relationship with Pindar on Ritornell and episodic composition and on the role of ethics in Empedocless On nature as a response to Hesiod. I also intend to make the main results and arguments more accessible to the English reader. The numbering of the fragments follows that of Diels and Kranz although I essentially use Víteks 2006 edition the numbering of On nature that is here fr. 17 + ens. a follows that of Laks and Most 2016. I am in favor of the twopoems hypothesis although this idea is only necessary to the last part of the present paper. , , , , ; ( , , ) , 171 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , State of the art In general studies on the poem s of Empedocles choose either to , () reconstruct his philosophical thought or to analyse his poetics choice of words his practice of the dactylic hexameter etc. , , ) ①. two approaches ultimately share a common presupposition , ( his These which consists in the belief that this dichotomy between form and content is relevant in shaping the scholarly interpretation of a philosopherpoet such as Empedocles②. On the one hand , scholars who engage in “ formal ” reconstructing his philosophical thought tend to refer to criteria insofar as the criteria allow them to take a position on a passage that is debated for reasons of interpretation or of textual criticism tend to leave these considerations aside the rest of the time③. —and On the other hand scholars who analyse the aesthetic and formal features of , Empedocless poems tend to avoid taking a stance on matters of philosophical interpretation④. Therefore neither approach deals in a systematic fashion with all the issues raised by Empedocless philosophical poems , but they presuppose that poetical issues could or should be distinguished from , , the philosophical issues in the practice of interpretation. This depends partly on the characteristics of the division of knowledges in universities. If such a dichotomy long characterized scholarly approaches to ① For instance Rossetti and Santaniello 2004 tend to study both linguistic and philosophical aspects of Empedocless work separately. ② For the Aristotelian origin of such views see Bernabé 1979 p. 376 . For a clear expression of this line of thought about Parmenidess choice of verse see Barnes 1982 I p.155 . ③ For instance the general approach of OBriens reconstruction of the cosmic cycle 1969 and an important part of scholarship since then. ④ For instance Lorussos 2005 study of repetitions in Empedocles takes for granted both the text and the interpretation of Martin and Primavesi 1999. Bordigoni 2004 pp.250 252 analyzes the formulary variations in the names of Aphrodite in Empedocles but does not propose an interpretation of the role of Love on these grounds. , ( , ) ( , ) , ) ( ), ( ,, , , ( , ) 172 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 Empedocles this state of affairs began to change in the last third of the 20 th , century, when scholars became interested in interpreting the relationship between poetry and philosophy in Empedocles. The first move in this direction consisted in discussing Empedocless choice of poetry in its historical context. This is indeed an actual issue. In the 6 th century B.C.E. Anaximander and Anaximenes wrote prose treatises in , a context where poetry had been the dominant medium of expression before the emergence of prose writing in the 6 th , century was made possible by a series of technical innovations①. Most early Greek philosophers composed prose treatises the time of Empedocles —Anaxagoras himself did so at —, and from Plato onwards prose became the normal form of expression for philosophical thought. One of the reasons why the first philosophers chose prose over poetry is that prose enabled them to distinguish in a radical fashion the new form of enquiry they proposed from cosmotheogonies composed in poetry ( for instance by Hesiod . Here is not the place to discuss the relationship between ) Hesiod and the first philosophers② but both Hesiod and the early Greek , philosophers proposed cosmological models③ based on different assumptions , although theirs were — the difference lies less in the issue they examine than in the theoretical models they built to provide answers to the problems. Asking why Xenophanes Parmenides and Empedocles chose to , , compose philosophical poems is then grounded from a historical and philosophical point of view. For composing prose treatises necessitated a complex set of conditions a technical process to transform the plant : papyrus into a writing surface ④ the commercial networks to transport ; See Laks 2001. An edited volume on Hesiod and the Presocratics is now being prepared by Leopoldo Iribarren and Hugo Koning. ③ For Hesiod see for instance Clay 2003. ④ Pfeiffer 1968 25 Knox 1985 4 see also Herodotus V.58.12 16. ① ② , , ; , ; Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , the papyrus① the possibility to learn the alphabet at least accessible to ; the social élites an audience ( ) ; material conditions of dissemination of the work to ② , and so on ③. All this entails the establishment of new social practices and the implementation of means and of situations of communication which were only progressively entrenched in the Greek , society. If such a complex system had already been established albeit , in a limited way , and if an audience existed for philosophical prose treatises at the turn of the 6 and 5 centuries, then it is far from self evident that Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Empedocles would choose th th to compose poetry. Did they choose to return to an earlier form of expression Or is there more to it ? ? Raising the question in historical terms such as these generally entails two main series of consequences. 1. The conclusions that are reached emphasize the practical and pragmatic advantages of poetry over prose ④ scholars put forward the : argument that poetry is easier to memorise than prose ; that poetry reaches a wider audience than prose in the Greek society of the late 6 th and early 5 th centuries that poetry provides the poet with the authority ; of a goddess — the Muse — whereas a prosetreatise relies on the sole authority of the author ; that poetry allows for options of organization and communication of the subject matter, such as ring composition , ⑤ that have no direct equivalent in prose ⑥. The trading post of Naucratis was founded in the second half of the 7 th century. ② The first traces we have of an institutional education system for the alphabet belong to the 5 th century Knox 1985 pp.6 7 Harris 1989 pp.57 59 Ford 2003 24 27 . The oldest testimony is that of Herodotus VI.27.2 9 which tells the fall of a schools roof in Chios in 496. ③ On this discussion see below. ④ For this line of analysis see Long 1985 pp.245 246 Most 1999 p.339 pp.352 353 Kahn 2003 pp.157 158 Granger 2007 pp.416 417 and pp.426 430. fr. 1 ⑤ See the affirmations of authority at the beginning of Hecataeuss treatise Jacoby . ⑥ This last aspect is in my opinion debatable it cannot be held that prose writing is unable to use poetic modes of organization of the linguistic material. ① ( , ; , ; , ) , , ; , ; , ; , , , ( ) ; 173 174 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 2. In this light , choosing poetry is generally interpreted as not choosing prose①. The emphasis lies in the opposition between prose and poetry as two equally possible options for expression of a philosophical thought. The exact interpretation depends on how we envision the modes of diffusion of prose treatises in the 6 th and early 5 th centuries②. However this way of raising the question very often means overlooking , the relationship between the medium and the thought that a given author expresses within this medium. Two groups are opposed and poets ( prose writers ) without always paying proper attention to the reasons for individual choices. This approach reaches conclusions that are well grounded but their , limit is that they focus on aspects that are ultimately external to the construction of the ancient authors philosophical thoughts and to the medium in which each author expresses his philosophy. Therefore they say little on the philosophical project that underlies the choice of poetry or prose. As a matter of fact this line of analysis has been enriched by a , series of approaches which proposed to analyse the problem of the relationship of medium and thought by focusing on the texts of a given author himself In 1990 —here, Empedocles. , Laura Gemelli Marciano concluded her book with the For a noteworthy exception see for instance Most 1999. The question is whether prose treatises were used as a memento within the school by the master and his disciples Pfeiffer 1968 p.29 Thesleff 1990 p.111 if they were sheer technical writings intended for specialists Kahn 2003 p. 151 or if they were intended to disseminate outside the school. I agree with the latter view which finds a strong argument in the fact that the treatise by Pherecydes of Syros opens with a play on the rhythm of the dactylic hexameter in order to mark his difference from Hesiod hence the intended mode of diffusion was oral on this aspect I take the liberty to referring to my study Gheerbrant 2018a . The two other views are generally argued for on the basis of later sources or historical reconstructions which are in my view not as strong. On the prose of Pherecydes and that of Anaximander see Laks 2001. For the elements we have on the diffusion of prosetreatises in the 5 th and 4 th centuries see Thomas 2003. ① , ② ( , ( ; , ); , ); , , ( ; , , , , , , ) Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , idea that Empedocles should be acknowledged for his prominent role as a poet① ; that he certainly had expert knowledge of Aeschyluss Oresteia and that sheer philosophical analyses of his poems are not fully satisfactory insofar as they cannot account for the poetic aspects of his work. We may however regret that her study of how Empedocles uses and subverts the traditional language of poetry does not connect her conclusions to the general problems of interpretation raised by Empedocless philosophy more systematically ②. More recently a second series of works examined the problem of , the relationship between medium and philosophical thought in Empedocles. The model that was developed is that of a textual analogy between form and content③. For instance when Empedocles expresses , the idea of cyclicity that of the recurrence of identity ), he does so by repeating words and expressions in his verse. Those repetitions imitate , within the poetic medium, the semantic content that is denoted—which ( is why we can speak of a textual analogy. One of the major proponents of this view was Annette RosenfeldLffler④. She argues that poetry works in Empedocles as a microcosm that imitates his cosmological ( as the subtitle of her book makes clear: “ cosmology and metaphor”) . She favors the idea of a homology between the Muse and Love, between the chariot of poetry and the elaboration of the doctrine cosmological doctrine. The general problem of this line of analysis is that its proponents do not go far enough. Although the textual analogy is described and Gemelli Marciano 1990 p.209. Such as that of the reconstruction of the cosmic cycle and the number of zoogonies in each cycle. ③ Graham 1988 p.305 Osborne 1998 p.27 Most 1999 pp.353 356 he is the first to describe this phenomenon as a textual analogy Rosenfeld 2006 p. 140 Wersinger 2008 p.97 Santoro 2013 pp.192 195 Hardie 2013 p.211. It is generally held that the poem reenacts the notion of cyclical repetition or the cycle between one and many or the constant interchange between the elements. ④ RosenfeldLffler 2006. ① , ② , ; , “ , ; , ; , ; ”); , ( , , ; , 175 176 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 analysed , it is rarely used as a hermeneutical tool to address the interpretative issues raised by the thought of Empedocles. Therefore we could say that this line of analysis is not sufficient to overcome the dichotomy mentioned at the beginning of this paper. One of the reasons for this state of affairs is that when they analyze repetition in , Empedocles scholars tend to focus on similarities and identity and to , neglect the differences between instances of repeated lines —whereas taking them in consideration would lead to reconstructing and discussing the relationship between the main parts of Empedocless cosmological account which amounts to giving this model of textual analogy an , interpretative force in philosophical terms. The sole interpreter who examined the features of the medium of composition and the philosophical thought together is Jean Bollack①. He analyzes in a very systematic fashion how Empedocles works on the , , various aspects of the language of the poetic tradition forms of organization of the poetic material ( words, syntax, ) in order to construct and express his philosophical thought. In his hermeneutical practice , how the poet works on the medium is thus a prominent feature of his philosophical reflection. However Bollack never directly questioned the , nature of the relationship between medium and thought : his analysis rests on the assumption that poetry and philosophy are united in a relation of necessity in Empedocles but he never proved this view as , such. There is thus a space in scholarship to raise this question on a new basis interpreting the relationship between the medium of expression : and the nature of Empedocless philosophical thought. There is more to it than mere reflection on form and content. For dactylic hexameter is not simply a form of expression ( that is, it cannot be reduced to a ① Bollack 1965 1968 2003. Along the same lines as Bollack reflection to the Presocratics in general see Bernabé 1976. — ; , , but extending the Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , metrical pattern . It is above all a poetic tradition which conveys ) typical topics typical modes of expression typical words and typical phrasings. , , , The Muse and poetic theory Empedocles places the Muse in the center of a relationship involving gods and men. He does so by providing a new definition for the three terms of this relationship. He redefines human existence by stating that birth and death are not absolute beginning and end ① but , rather processes of mixing and separation of the four elements which are what actually exist②. In so doing , , Empedocles also redefines the nature of the gods, by stating that the four elements, as well as Love and Strife, are the real gods . The redefinition of the Muse essentially takes place in fragment 3 , and also in fragments 4 and 131. Now, fragment 3 is closely connected ③ to fragment 2. They are cited together by Sextus Empiricus in the context of a debate about the role of sense perception and reason in reaching true knowledge④. What is at stake in fragment 3 , in its relation to fragment 2 is to reform the conditions under which poetry is , able to formulate truth , and Empedocles does so in the general framework of his cosmology. He thus redefines the Muse source or rather the conveyer of his poetic speech ( as the ), and at the same time how the Muse relates to the poet, to his audience, and to reality in , , general. This testimony by Sextus Empiricus has been a matter of contention. ① ② ③ ④ Emped. fr. 8 11 and 15 DK. Fr. 8.3 4. Fr. 6. Sextus Empiricus AM. VII.122 125. , , 177 178 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 Sextuss aim is apparently to show that Empedocles thought that truth could be reached by a collaboration between reason and sense perception ( if the former controls the latter ) ①. He first states that according to some the criterion for truth is not sense perception but right reason /ρθò! λ"γο! ), and that this right reason is twofold: the one is divine and ineffable, the other is human and nonineffable . Then ( ② Sextus quotes lines 1 8a of fragment 2 in order to show that Empedocles had ruled out sense perception as a criterion and lines 8b , 9 to state that truth could be reached by human λ "γο! to a certain extent. He then cites fragment 3 to illustrate that men can reach truth if reason controls the senses. Now the problem is that Sextus quotes fragment 3 as a whole to illustrate this point whereas only lines 9 13 seem to provide a confirmation of his , idea③. However this reproach , does not hit the mark. For the first eight lines of fragment 3 provide Sextus with the divine ineffable λ"γο! with which he began the gods , : that are at the origin of poetic speech and the Muse that conveys it to , the poet. The new definition of poetic speech lines 1 8 takes place within ) ( a discussion on the role of sense perception in accessing knowledge. Empedocles accepts that sense perception can make men access truth if we use senseperception under precise conditions introduce any hierarchy between the senses : we should not , and we should consider how we perceive the objects of sense perception. This view is opposed to those represented in fragment 2 , where Empedocles discusses the epistemological bases on which men usually elaborate their views on ① AM. VII.122 Some others say that according to Empedocles the criterion of truth is not sense perception but the right reason. ② AM. VII.122. ③ On this basis recent scholarship proposed to consider Sextuss testimony confused and fr. 3 made up by Sextus or his source from several passages of the original poem given the fact that the relationship of lines 6 8 with the rest of the fragment raises further issues Wright 1995 p.157 Inwood 2001 pp.214 216 Trépanier 2004 p.53 . :“ ” , “ ,” , ( , ; , ; , ) 179 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , their own existence and on the world Empedocles opposes an approach : that consists in electing as a principle what men first happen to encounter①. The stress should thus not bear on the object we perceive but on the process of perception , , to avoid scattering our effort for understanding into a variety of objects of sense perception. The part of fragment 3 that deals with poetry works as a turning point between Empedocless critical and positive accounts of sense perception. The most prominent steps in the argument are as follows 1. In lines 3.1 2② , : the poet addresses the gods to ask for inspiration. However he does not ask inspiration to formulate a theme , or a topic. This fact was overlooked by almost all the scholarly tradition and it is yet of crucial importance. Whereas the poet of the Iliad asks ( μ%νιν )ειδε, Il. 1 ), and whereas the poet of the Odyssey asks the Muse to sing one man, Odysseus ( )νδρα μοι !ννεπε, Od. 1 ), Empedocles himself does not ask the gods to sing the origin of the world or the cosmic cycle, or the his Muse to sing the wrath of Achilleus six principles. What we find on the contrary is a claim for a certain type of speech one that is pure and that comes from pious mouths : (“ From ”, l. 2 ) . This is a complete break with the tradition of dactylic poetry, and what is prominent here is the pious mouths derive a pure stream respect of a correct relationship between gods and men. 2. Now the way the divine is characterized in lines 1 2 is , unexpectedly underdetermined. The gods are referred to in a vague , ① Fr. 2.3 8a πα5ρον δ #ν ζω6σι β$ ου μ+ρο! !θρ$σαντε! / 7κ& μοροι καπνο*ο δ$ κην !ρθ+ντε! !π+πταν / α,τò μ"νον πεισθ+ντε! <τ& προσ+κυρσεν -καστο! / π'ντοσ #λαυν"μενοι τò δ <λον ... εKχεται ε"ρε* ν / ο"τω! οKτ #πιδερκτ% τ'δ !νδρ'σιν οKτ Having seen that the portion of life attributed to their #πακουστ' / οKτε ν"ωι περιληπτ'. existence was short they quicktodie borne in air just as smoke they fly off convinced only by that they happened to have met first when they were driven in all directions and that he boasts ... that he found it is the whole. In these conditions men cannot perceive that with their eyes or hear it or comprehend it with their minds . ② Fr. 3.1 2 !λλ% θεο, τ%ν μ+ν μαν$ ην !ποτρ+ ψατε γλ;σση! / # κ δ #σ$ ων But gods whereas you divert their madness from στομ'των καθαρ*ν /χετε&σατε πηγ$ν my tongue from holy mouths derive a pure flow . : , , [ ] , , · (“ , , , — , [ ] , , , ”) : , , (“ , , ”) , 180 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 fashion as θεο$ , without giving any precision on what or who they exactly are. My proposal to explain this is that the proem of On nature features so to speak a doubletrigger device during the first listening : , the audience does not yet know the main features of Empedocless cosmology and theology and naturally think that the poet refers by ( Zeus and the others ); during a second listening, or during the first but in a retrospective fashion, when the audience learns that, for Empedocles, the true gods are the four elements, Love and Strife, and so on, the meaning of the first two θεο$ to the gods of the tradition lines of fr. 3 becomes very different. They then amount to placing the poets claim for inspiration and for piety and his general depiction of , poetry under the patronage of the six cosmic principles who also are , the true θεο$ according to Empedocles. Thus the principles of the cosmic cycles also become the origin of Empedocless poetic discourse which is truthful because it observes real piety , —that is to say piety towards the six principles. Therefore Empedocles seems to use traditional words to express this notion of piety καθαρ"! , etc. ), ( θεο$, <σιο! , but he actually adapts their content to his own philosophical thought. 3. In this context the role of the Muse is to convey to the poet the , poetic discourse which originates in the gods① : lines 3 5 depict a chariot that represents the poem according to a metaphor that is typical of IndoEuropean culture②. The Muse conveys this chariotpoem from Piety to the poet. She is characterised by three adjectives λευκ;λενε and παρθ+νε —πολυμν$στη, —which connect her with the notions of love ① Fr. 3.3 5 κα, σ+ πολυμν$στη λευκ;λενε παρθ+ νε Μο5σα / )ντομαι Yν θ+μι! #στ, ν #φημερ$ οισιν !κο&ειν / π+μπε παρ Ε,σεβ$η! #λ'ουσ ε,$νιον -ρμα. And you muchwooed whitearmed virgin Muse I entreat you convey what is permitted to oneday creatures to hear by driving from Piety the chariot obedient to the reins . ② Crafted objects serve in general as metaphors for poems in IndoEuropean texts. Chantraine 2008 pp. 110 111 Bollack 1969 III p. 30 n. 4 Rousseaus preface to Pucci 1995 pp.17 18 Cerri 1999 p.97 n.133 RosenfeldLffler 2006 pp.36 38 etc. : , , , , (“ , , , , , , ; , : , ; , , , , ; ”) ; , , 181 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , and desire. The meaning of these adjectives is a matter of contention if : we take πολυμν$στη in a passive sense , it means that the Muse is wooed by many poets; if we take it in an active sense, it means that the Muse remembers much ①. This pair of alternatives entail an emphasis on two different aspects of poetic composition rivalry between poets and : the role of memory in the process of composition. Light may be shed on this problem if we consider that the three adjectives work as a system the Muse is wooed by many poets because she is attractive , white arms is a typical feature of attractive women poetry② , : ( having in archaic ) . However, she is still a virgin ( παρθ+ νο! ), which means that no poet was successful as a suitor. This system of three adjectives places the Muse and therefore the whole process of poetic composition , , under the patronage of Love③. The Muse here stands as a metaphor for a poems compositional process and as a goddess characterized with , features that are significant in the context of Empedocless philosophical thought. In an interesting fashion Strife does not seem to be mentioned , in these lines —more on this later. Therefore, Empedocless Muse belongs to the general power of Love, although she is not simply identical with Love. The Muse conveys the poetic discourse in a strictly vertical relationship between the gods the poet and his audience. This audience is referred to with , #φημ+ριο! , , a word that puts emphasis on the reelaboration by Empedocles of the notion of mortality. Empedocless own Muse , depicted in lines 3 8 , is however opposed to a devious Muse described in lines 6 8. Lines 6 8 are a , ① In favor of “ much wooed:” Bignone 1916 , p.392 ; Gallavotti 1975 , p.9. In favor of “ much remembering:” Bollack 1969, III, pp.28 29, Wright 1995, p.157. Diels, as early as 1903 , proposed “ much remembered,” which was followed by Gemelli Marciano 1990 , pp.57 60. ② For Hera: Il. 1 , 55 , 195 , 208 , 595 , etc. ; for Helen : Il. 3.121 ; for Andromache: Il. 6.371 ; in Pindar, for Thyone ( P.3.98 99 ) . ③ RosenfeldLffler ( 2006 , pp.49 52 ) saw that the text was proposing this connection , but she conflated the Muse with Love, which goes too far and lacks textual basis. 182 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 matter of contention for several reasons. 1. The subject of βι$σεται , ( l. 6) is not explicit, and the construal of this verb is unclear . 2. The referent of σε ( l.6 ) is a matter of contention, and it is unclear whether ① the lines are addressed to the Muse or to Pausanias②. Lines 3 5 are explicitly addressed to the Muse , and lines 9 13 can hardly be addressed to a goddess since they deal with sense perception ③ as no : change of addressee takes place in the text that is generally edited in line 9 nor in line 6 , , the question is whether these lines are already addressed to Pausanias or if the addressee is still the Muse. The most satisfactory and the easiest construal is to consider that , , the subject of βι$σεται ( that we interpret as an aorist subjunctive with a short thematic vowel ) is the chariot ( -ρμα —namely, the poem in progress), that is the last word of the preceding line. Although this is the most economical option from a grammatical and syntactic point of view it has never been proposed. As to the addressee of these lines , , his identity was concealed by a correction to line 9 proposed by Bergk in 1839 ④. He corrected the text of the manuscripts !λλ% γ%ρ )θρει , π$! παλ'μZ into !λλ )γ )θρει π'σ( παλ'μ( . , Bergks main argument was that according to the text of the manuscripts the addressee is everyone π$! in the masculine . This was in his view impossible ( , ) , since Empedocless addressee is Pausanias. Bergks correction was ① The two main options are to consider it as an aorist subjunctive with a short thematic vowel construed with μη to express a prohibition or as a future indicative construed with μ$ Bollack 1969 III pp.31 32 . Elsewhere I provided arguments against the second option. ② In favor of the Muse Bollack 1969 III p. 31 Trépanier 2004 p. 61. In favor of Pausanias Wright 1995 p.161 Inwood 2001 216 Mansfeld and Primavesi 2011 p.442. ③ Fr. 3.9 13 !λλ% γ%ρ )θρει π$! παλ'μ( π6 δ%λον -καστον / μ$τε τιν Pψιν !χων π$ στει πλ+ ον 3 κατ !κου$ν / 3 !κο*ν # ρ$ δουπον "π+ρ τραν;ματα γλ;σση! / μ$τε τι τ%ν )λλων #π"σ( π"ρο! #στ, νο%σαι / γυ$ ων π$ στιν !ρυκε ν"ει θ [ δ%λον But as a matter of fact consider yourself as a whole by your palm by which -καστον. way each thing becomes evident without accepting in your trust a visual perception rather than what you perceive according to the hearing or resounding hearing over what the tongue makes clear or do not keep off your trust from any other limb by which there is a way to know and know by which way each thing becomes evident. ④ Bergk 1839 1886 p.28. , ( , , : , ) : ; , : , (“ , , ; , , ; , ; , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ”) [ ] , , 183 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , accepted by all later editors①. But Pausanias is actually the addressee of : the narrator entreats Pausanias to consider himself as a whole ( π$! is in apposition ) how the objects of sense perception reach us; π$!, as a masculine, provides us with the line 9 even if we maintain π$! word on which the change of addressee rests. Therefore we have no reason anymore to believe that lines 6 8 should be addressed to someone else than the Muse change of addressee. , since these lines provides no explicit Lines 6 8 then mean that the poem must not compel the Muse to pick the flowers that the mortals offer②. This enigmatic expression is made clearer if we consider that the Muse not only is a goddess but also functions as a metaphor for the process of composing a poem. The sentence then means that , according to Empedocles, the process of composing a poem may present an occasion to modify the message that was provided by the gods and conveyed by the Muse in order that the , message corresponds to the audiences expectations. The point is that these expectations are presented in line 7 in a tension with the necessity of piety that Empedocles defined in lines 1 5 they lead the Muse to : say more than what is pious. ” On the contrary, the poem will reach the summit of wisdom ( l. 8 ), if the Muse stays in the limit of piety— that is, if she does not yield to the temptation to modify the message “ that she received from the gods in order to obtain the favor of the audience a temptation which is presented as inherent to the process of ( composition . ) Who then is the target of Empedocles in these lines There are two ? possible complementary answers. , , See Víteks apparatus 2006 307 ad loc. . Fr. 3.6 8 μηδ+ σ+ γ ε,δ"ξοιο βι$σεται )νθεα τιμ%! / πρò! θνητ%ν !νελ+σθαι But do #φ J θ #σ$η! πλ+ον ε)πε* ν / θ'ρσε.  κα, τ"τε δ* σοφ$η! #π )κροισι θο'ζειν. not let it -ρμα compell you to pluck the flowers of glorious honor from mortals for the price of which one says more than piety recklessly and at this moment yes piety sits on the summits of wisdom. ① ( ② , , ) : , (“ ( ) , , ”) — , , 184 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 1. The first one lies in the phrase “ to say more than piety.” Here the poetic discourse is said to be wrong when it adds unnecessary determinations to the depiction of the divine. This phrasing shows that what Empedocles is here implicitly proposing is to purify the representation of gods from the erroneous determinations that the other poets added to the depiction of their truer simpler nature. Empedocles , is here reactivating Xenophaness reproaches towards Homers and Hesiods accounts of the gods① , but on other epistemological bases. Empedocles analyzes the reasons why the other poets represented the gods in an anthropomorphic fashion : the other poets represented the gods with anthropomorphic features to obtain success in poetic competition by representing the divine in the image of human beings whom they wished to obtain success from. , 2. The second element of answer lies in the fact that Empedocles uses in lines 3 8 a number of terms borrowed from epinician poetry such as εKδοξον , (“ glorious”) or )νθεα ( for the price one wins), or epic terms which were the object of Pindars poetic reflection ( such as στ\μα , -ρμα , #φημ+ριο!) . Furthermore, our passage displays a set of close connections to Bacchylidess 5 victory ode; after the myth of Meleager , Bacchylides asks Calliope to stop a wellconstructed chariot, ② th whereas Empedocles asks his Muse to convey a horsedrawn chariot that is obedient to the reins③. On the basis of these reflections of epinician poetry in Empedocles , we can interpret the relationship between epinician poetics and Empedocless poetics④. In a nutshell in Pindar , , the most fundamental poetic relationship is triangular the divinity is the : Xenophanes fr. 11 DK. For #φημ+ριο! see Pi. N.6.6 Bacch. Ep.3.76. For the flowers see the first triad of the Olympian 9. For εKδοξο! Pi. O.1.70 14.23 P. 6.16 17 12.5 N.7.8 Is.2.34 3 / 4.1 8.1 fr.incert. 172.6 215b.8 fr.dith. 70b.30 Bacch. Ep.7.9 9.21 14.22 16.1 2. Whitearmed Calliope stop your wellconstructed ③ Bacch. Ep. 5 pp. 176 178 chariot here. ④ I develop this aspect further in a paper to be published in Pallas in 2018 Gheerbrant 2018c . ① ② , ; , , ; , , , ; ; :“ , , ; , , , ; , , ” ( ) , Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , source of the athletic victory which is then celebrated by the poet in a , victory ode itself inspired by the gods and composed due to an order from a patron. In Pindar the -ρμα metaphor refers to the course of the poemchariot , from the beginning of the poem to its end① ; it is connected to the course of the winner on his chariot. In the context of this poetic the statements that are not appropriate to the nature of the , gods not to speak of those that insult them② are excluded from the , epinician discourse , : they insult the gods as the source of poetic composition and of athletic prowess at the same time. What does not fit Empedocless views in this is that the poet has to adapt his discourse to a circumstance in which the gods favored a third party ( here, the athlete . The depiction of the gods is therefore ) dependent on criteria that are external from the strict verticality between gods , poet, and audience. The problem is that Pindars triangular poetics involving the gods the athlete and the poet lead him to make , , and that these statements are based on criteria that belong to the poetics of the epinicy , prescriptive statements about the nature of the gods and not to features of the divine beings themselves. The poet adds qualifications to the divine nature because of his specific poetics. , Thus Empedocles targets at the same time the epinician poets and the work they did on the expresson of epic poetry he did not choose to ; discuss Homer or Hesiod directly but to do so in the framework of a , discussion of Pindars work on the myths in the context of his own epinician poetics. Empedocles therefore proposes an explanation of the —is mistaken: instead of observing a strict verticality between the gods, the poet and his audience, the Muses of the other poets adapted the message to the contexts in which it is communicated. Empedocles, reasons why the past poetic tradition —both See for instance P. 10.54 56. See the qualification of the gods as gluttonous Herakles O.9.35 39 . ① ② ( ) epic and epinician ( O. 1. 51 ) and the narratives about 185 186 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 however , composition proposes another model of poetic inspiration and , which is tightly connected with his cosmological and biological model: by this process he justifies the truthfulness of his own views and explains at the same time why the past tradition is mistaken in their views on the divine and hence according to Empedocles , the world. ( ), on Poetry and senseperception Let us now come back to the question of sense perception and of its role in Empedocless poetics. The question that arises is to determine what exactly is the relationship between the cosmological thought , expressed in the poem and transmitted by the Muse and the perceptible , world. Why should we attempt to find truth in sense perception if truth is ultimately revealed by a goddess ? The solution to this paradox is expressed in fragment 4 , where Empedocles analyzes the relationship between the poetic discourse and the persuasive force that is inherent to reality ①. The three preserved lines of fragment 4 are based on an opposition between hand the κακο$ , on the one , who refuse to trust what dominates, or what rules ( κρατ+ουσιν, which I analyze as a neuter plural), and, on the other hand, Pausanias ( the implicit subject of the imperative γν%θι ) . The noun π$στωμα refers to the proofs, or guarantees, that the Muse , provided. Aeschylus uses this word to refer to what seals a pact between two parties②. Along the same lines Empedocless poem is the tangible , sign that the pact contracted between the Muse and the poet is / !! δ+ παρ ① Fr. 4 ,λλ% κακο * ! μ+ν κ'ρτα π + λει κρατ + ουσιν ! πιστε * ν &μετ+ρη! κ+λεται πιστ;ματα Μο&ση! / γν%θι διασσηθ+ντο! #ν, σπλ'γχνοισι λ"γοιο. But vile men surely refuse to trust what dominates but as the guarantees received from our Muse urge know whereas the discourse has been divided into your entrails. ② Aesch. Ag.877 878 Ch.976 977 Eu.213 214 Pe.170 171. : · , (“ ; , , ”) ; ; ; Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , observed in the terms which were defined in fragment 3. The verb of , action κ+λεται means that the knowledge transmitted by the poem urges that is to say it has an inherent persuasive force that convinces , the audience. The fragment is therefore based on a parallelism between two levels that of the persuasive force that is inherent to reality : ( τ% κρατ+οντα refers to the principles which determine and explain reality ); and that of the representation of this force into the poem, as guarantees given by the Muse which provoke persuasion in the audience ( τ% πιστ;ματα) . The absolute genitive #ν, σπλ'γχνοισι λ"γοιo that ends line 3 ( διατμηθ+ντο! expresses the reason why the κακο$ ) encounter difficulties in knowing and in accepting the persuasive force of reality. The phrase has been interpreted in various ways depending on whether we consider the entrails ( σπλ'γχνα ) , to be those of ( then the emphasis is on study and understanding of knowledge), or those of the λ"γο! ( which means that understanding Pausanias the poetic discourse is only possible if the audience engages in its in depth analysis ) ①. A slightly different view is offered by the other : τ+μνω refers to the power of Strife in fr. 20 ( κακ6σι διατμηθ+ντ ]ρ$ δεσσι, l. 4 5 ) . If occurrence of τ+μνω in the poem On nature② we accept that a network of signification was associated with τ+μνω in the poem the absolute genitive of fragment 4 means that it is difficult , for men to accept the persuasive force of reality because Strife divided their λ"γο! within them —that is, their faculties of understanding. It then makes sense to mention the entrails rather than the heart or the prapides to stress that division descends to the deepest parts of the , ① For the λ"γο! Bignone 1916 p. 393. For Pausanias Sturz 1969 III pp. 44 45 Wright 1995 p. 164. The generally accepted understanding the poem is only possible if the audience divide it into 2004 p.228 Mansfeld and Primavesi 2011 pp.444 445 . ② There is a third occurrence in fr. 143 which Diels and Purifications. On this fragment see Picot 2004. : , , , ; ; , : , , ) , 1805 p. 639 Bollack view is nowadays that his entrails Trépanier , , ( Kranz located in the 187 188 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 individual. Therefore the interpretation I propose is that the persuasive force that is inherent to reality is not sufficient to convince men of the existence of the six principles , and of their role in the cosmology, because Strife divided mens faculties of understanding. It is therefore necessary for men to combine the observation of reality and the listening of the poem in order to reach knowledge. , This interpretation allows in turn a better understanding of the relationship that other passages build between the observation of reality and the understanding of the poem①. In several places , Empedocles calls on the testimony of sense perception to strengthen his poetic account. He describes the persuasive force of his account with words that belong to the family of πε$ θω π$ στωμα in fr. 4 or π$ στι! in fr. : , 71. In fragment 21 the same consideration is expressed by the noun , μ"ρφη . In fragments 21 and 71 the poet examines the possibility that , the persuasive force lacks strength or more literally that it lacks matter ( an , idea which he expresses with the neologism λιπ"ξυλο! . ) Fragments 21 and 23 provide a simile that expands on the roles of the ; after the simile, Empedocles calls no more on observation of reality, as at the beginning of fr. 21 , but rather on knowledge of the origin of living beings, from the Muse . From fr. 21 to fr. 23 , Empedocles therefore depicts a conversion from perception to knowledge, and suggests that acknowledging six principles in the composition of living beings ② the role of the six principles is the most effective way to account for the phenomenal world. Fragments 21.1 2 71 P.Strasb. a ii .21 30. I disagree with Palmers 2013 309 view that παρ% θεο5 means that the Muse is speaking in the first person in this fragment. I agree with the dominant view that Empedocles is speaking and that θεο5 refers to the Muse as the origin of his poetic speech. For the view that the god in question is Empedocles see Gemelli Marciano 2011 p.329. ① , , ② ( () , ) , , , Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , Poetry beyond sense perception The strategy of the philosopherpoet changes when his discourse bears on what escapes sense perception , such as the divinity that is described in fragments 133 and 134. Fragment 131 thus presents a transition between a part of the poem that deals with the concerns of men 131.1 2 ( ), and another that deals with blessed gods ①. The position of this fragment in the general organization of the poem was a matter of contention. It partly depends on how many poems Empedocles composed. The dominant view is that the fragment belongs to the Purifications and introduces the description of a divinity that man ( see fr. 133 134 ) . However, the fragment could also be a part of the proem, within the singlepoem hypothesis , or introduce the part of this poem that deals with the cannot access by sense perception ② ③ ④ divine⑤. This fragment was also considered to be the very beginning of the poem On nature poets ) ⑥. ( in which case the first two lines refer to other What is strictly necessary to the present interpretation is that fragment 131 introduces a depiction of divinities which are not accessible to sense perception whether it is the divinities of fragments 133 134 or the Sphairos. , If we accept that Empedocles announces in lines 131.3 4 that he is ① Fr. 131 : ε) γ%ρ #φημερ$ ων -νεκ+ν τινο!, )μβροτε Μο5σα , / &μετ+ρα! μελ+τα! 〈 μ+λε τοι〉 δι% φροντ$ δο! #λθε* ν / ε,χομ+νων, ν5ν α>τε παρ$ στασο, Καλλι"πεια, / !μφ, θε%ν μακ'ρων !γαθòν λ"γον #μφα$ νοντι (“ For if, for the favor of one of the one day creatures, immortal Muse, you cared that our preoccupations pass through your thought when they were praying you, now again, Calliopeia, assist one who brings to light a good discourse on the gods”) . ② Diels and Kranz 1952 , pp.364 366 ; Bollack 2003 , pp.91 96. ③ A proem ( προο$μιον) is the introductory part of a poem, which generally contains an address to the Muse. ④ Wright 1995 , p.94 ; Inwood 2001 , p.214. ⑤ Mansfeld and Primavesi 2011 , p.560 ; Gemelli Marciano 2011 , p.282. ⑥ Gallavotti 1975 , pp.161 163. 189 190 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 going to move on to the depiction of divinities that are not accessible to sense perception the device at stake is very different from the case of , , the narrator states his presence in the text very clearly by use of the first person , and by commenting on what he is going to present, in a fashion typical of didactic poetry . This is especially typical of fragments which refer to sense perception , such as fragments 21 , 71 , and the end of ensemble a on the Strasbourg Papyrus. In lines 3 4 of fragment 131 , on the contrary, the narrators persona sense perception. Usually ① disappears to let the Muse speak. However this disappearance of the first person singular in lines 3 , 4 was concealed by a correction by Schneidewin which all later editors , accepted②. Schneidewin corrected the genitive plural ε,χομ+νων into a dative singular ε,χομ+ν&. He constructed ε,χομ+ν& as an apposition to an , ( referring implicit μοι to the narrator . The consequence of this ) correction was to strenghthen the affirmation of the persona of the poet in lines 3 4 by adding a second participle. However Schneidewins , , correction is grammatically impossible because ε,χομ+ν& is followed , by the phrase ν5ν α>τε. Now ν5ν α>τε always appear in the first , position in a clause never in the second position ( like γ'ρ or δ+) . This causes a critical impediment to Schneidewins correction , since he ③ , proposes that a participle that precedes ν5ν α>τε syntactically agrees with a word that is implicit in the clause that follows ν5ν α>τε. And there is no good candidate for agreeing with ε,χομ+ν& in the first two lines. We therefore have to accept the text of the manuscripts ε,χομ+νων so that this participle agrees with #φημερ$ ων , , : mortals addressed a prayer to the Muse in order that she produce a poem about their See for instance Hesiod Op. 10 27 29 106 108 etc. Schneidewin 1851 p.167. ③ Homer Il. 1 237 3 67 and 241 4.321 etc. Od. 9 452 11 485 19 549 etc. Hymn to Demeter 123 Xenophanes fr. 7.1 DK Pindar Is.6.5 etc. ① , ② , ; , , ; , ; , , ; , , ; , ; , ; , , ; , ; 191 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , concerns①. As a consequence the imperative παρ$στασο , (“ assist ”) in line 3 has no other explicit complement than the participle #μφα$νοντι in line 4 there is no explicit pronoun that refers to the , : poet and there is no need to assume that there is one implicitly. The line , means :“ assist one who brings to light a good discourse on the gods.” The phrasing has two specificities. 1. In earlier Greek poetry the Muse is never subject of a form of παρ$ στημι in the , imperative②. 2. When the request for assistance expressed by a form of παρ$ στημι is developed by a participle in the dative as an apposition , ( as is the case here), a substantive in the dative always complements the verb and serves as a grammatical antecedent for the participle in the dative. In some cases σοι etc. , ) ③. , this is merely a personal pronoun ( μοι, The phrasing of lines 3 4 is therefore constructed in such a fashion that the grammatical peculiarity draws the attention of the audience to the disappearance of the persona of the narrator. This persona should have been expressed by a substantive according to grammar and this is , all the more remarkable since the narrator affirms his presence very strongly and repeatedly elsewhere ④. This absence of the narrator and the general reach of the phrase (“ ... assist one who brings to light ... ”) can be accounted for by the fact that Empedocles is now focusing on a subject that escapes sense perception. The poet lets the Muse speak when it is not possible to find confirmation of his discourse in the world. For a parallel see Simonides fr. 11.21 22 West. The first other occurrence of the Muse being the subject of παρ $ στημι is Pindar O.3.4. In the proem of the catalogue of ships Il. 2 485 there is however a form of to be present. παρειμ$ ③ I checked all the occurrences of παρ$ στημι before Empedocles the verb appears primarily in Homer Hesiod the Hymns Alcaeus archaic elegy Aeschylus Pindar Bacchylides and Herodotus. ④ Fr. 2.8 9 3 4 8.1 9.5 11 17.1 14 16 26 21.1 23.9 11 71 112 114 etc. ① , ② , ( ,“ , ), ” — , , , , ; ; ; ; ; ; , , , ; , ; , , ; ; ; , 192 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 Empedocles engages in reforming poetic discourse and its origin , , on bases that are consistent with his own cosmological and biological thought and with his own theory of perception. He thus defines a strict , vertical relationship between the gods , his own Muse, himself as a poet and his audience. He bases this relationship on a piety towards the , principles of his system in this way he explains the reasons why the ; , past poetic tradition is wrong by opposing his own Muse to a devious Muse , —who is virtually that of the earlier tradition. The expression of his cosmological and biological theses entails a collaboration between sense perception and the knowledge received from the Muse and expressed in the poem. They are two aspects of the same persuasive force one is inherent to reality the other to Empedocless poem but : , , both prove the role of the elements in the cosmology biology and so , , on. In such contexts the narrator strongly affirms his presence in the , text when he refers to or comments on the very act of enunciation , , , ( Δ$πλ # ρ+ ω, fr. 17. 1, is a prominent example ) . On the contrary, when Empedocless poetic discourse deals with subjects that escape sense perception the narrators persona disappears to let the Muse speak. , , Thus Empedocles intertwines a reform of the conditions under which poetic discourse can lay claim to truthfulness , with his new conception of the Muse and of the divine and his original elaboration , on the nature of living beings and of the world. The features of poetic discourse that Empedocles defines at a theoretical level thus draw an essential connection between poetry and the philosophical thought that is expressed in his poem. How poetic composition Empedocless purpose techniques are adapted to Empedocless theoretical work on the relationship between poetry 193 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , and philosophy has concrete effects on the different levels of his poetic practice. This is evident from his use of hexameter itself. The comparison between Empedocless practice with those of Parmenides and Panyassis① on the one hand and with those of Homer and Hesiod on , the other shows that hexameter is not a constraint of expression that , Empedocles would merely endure. Rather he uses dactylic hexameter , as a poetic and semantic tool to elaborate his own thought and its original features. Prosody and meter enable him to put stress on some words , notions, or passages , and to emphasize how different his thought is from the earlier epic tradition. For instance , Empedocless work on the notion of human existence is stressed by a play on the prosody of the word θνητ "! , θν is syllablereleasing six times and syllable . Now, three points are worth noting: ( 1 ) It is very instances of θνητ "! closing only once② (“ mortal ”) . Out of the seven relevant rare in epic poetry that a sequence of consonants that are occlusive and ; ( 2 ) Empedocles himself treats no other such sequence as syllablereleasing. ( 3 ) Almost all epic poets use nasal is syllablereleasing③ th ① Panyassis is an epic poet of the first half of the 5 century who composed an Heracleid. Syllablereleasing means that all consonants in the sequence are pronounced with ② the next vowel therefore the preceding syllable keeps its natural quantity e.g. , |φροδ$ τη where the alpha retains its natural quantity that is short syllableclosing means that a consonant in the sequence is pronounced as ending the preceding syllable whereas the other is pronounced as opening the following syllable therefore the syllable is lenghthened by position e.g. ,φ |ροδ$ τη where the short alpha is made long by position since the syllable ends by a consonant . By this device the poet could include words or sequences of words that would not normally fit the line such as the name of Aphrodite which needs to be scanned , |φροδ$ τη uu to be included in a dactylic hexameter or make the position of words in the line more flexible. By relevant cases I mean when θν is preceded by a word ending with a vowel in other cases we cannot tell whether the word is syllablereleasing or syllableclosing. In Empedocles the sequence is syllableclosing in 17.3 and syllablereleasing in 35.7 14 16 71.3 112.4 115.7. ③ West 1982 p. 16 Gentili and Lomiento 2003 p. 21. In Homer and Hesiod attic abbreviation normally happens only to allow a given word in the dactylic hexameter for example the name of Aphrodite as presented above . “ ” ; , , ; ( , , , , , ) , ( , , ; ( : ” ); “ , ) “ , , ; ” ; , , ; , , ) , , ; , ( 194 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 θνητ"! so that θν is syllableclosing① , apart from Choerilus of Samos for whom it is syllablereleasing②. Only late authors such as , , , admit both uses of θν ( outside from θνητ"!) . Where θνητ"! is concerned, Empedocless Quintus of Smyrna or the Argonautica Orphica ③ prosody is thus quite noteworthy. What matters is not that θν is syllablereleasing or syllableclosing in itself but the variation from the , traditional usage prosody is used to underscore the poets work on the : concept of mortality. Empedocles reforms the epic practice of similes within the framework of his own epistemology. He grants equal importance to ( for instance, when some parts of the tenor have no equivalent in the vehicle, or viceversa ) . Let us take the analogy and disanalogies example of fr. 21 and 23. Fragment 21 provides no detailed account of the exact process by which the four elements are mixed by Love and ; after the depiction of the powers of the two principles ( 21. 7 8 ), the text provides us with a catalogue of living beings ( 21.9 12 ) . On the contrary, we find in fragment 23 a detailed separated by Strife explanation of the way the painters mix the powders in different quantities , but the identity of the two painters , if there are two painters is unclear and a matter of contention④. Hence the traditional , problem of determining whether Strife takes part in the process of ① For instance Hom. Il. 1. 339 and 574 12.242 14.199 etc. Hes. Th. 223 500 592 etc. Panyassis fr. 14.1 Bernabé etc. ② Choerilus fr. 335. 1 LloydJonesParson is the only occurrence of θνητ"! in his fragments. This fragment was not included in Bernabés edition. ③ Quintus Posthom. 1.89 and 93 Arg.Orph. 430 and 731. με$ ξαντε ④ The three main options to interpret the three duals δεδα%τε 23. 2 23.4 and κτ$ ζοντε 23.6 are they are stylistical Bollack 1969 III p.122 Wright 1995 they refer to the two hands of Aphrodite Iribarren 2013 98 pp.38 39 and pp. 179 180 ss. there are actually two painters Trépanier 2003 34 ss. Sedley 2006 59 . In the latter case the question is what is their reference in the context of the tenor Trépanier loc. cit. argued that Strife was to be given a generative role just as Love so there would be a zoogony under Strife Sedley understands that the point is that both zoogonies happen in our world loc. cit. . : , , ; , , , ( ) ); , , , , , , , ( ), ; ( , ) , ; ( ) : ); ( , ( ; ; , ); ( , ; ; ) ( , ( ) 195 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , unification by mixture and how exactly ①. Comparing the structure of , : in fragment 23, two painters do a series of actions, whereas in fragment 21 , each of the two the two catalogues sheds light on this issue powers performs one type of action. Those disanalogies require an interpretation as stressed in the text itself fragment 23 mentions that , : living beings resemble their representation ②. This is a hint at the fact that the meaning of the two fragments should be sought by the comparison of their similarities and of their differences. My proposal is that the participle in the dual κτ$ζοντε l. 23.6 synthetically expresses ( ) the two opposite powers of Love and Strife which where elaborated in ( lines 21. 7 8 , in the tenor ) . The apparent absence of Strife in the painters analogy raises interpretative issues; but using the notion of dis analogy helps us make clear that its role is in fact to separate the elements so that Love can then mix them. This point is made in l. 21.7 , where δι'μορφα and )νδιχα express the two sides of Strifes power to : divide an object that used to be one and to separate one thing from the other③. , In sum , the duality that characterizes the action of the two powers in fragment 21 ( mixing and separating ) is relocated on the agent in fragment 23 ( the two painters) . Thus the study of the disanalogies within the analogy sheds light on the elaboration of the philosophical thought. This is especially true as Empedocles usually introduces a very tight symmetry between tenor and vehicle④. Two processes are at work at the same time an explanation by similitude and an explanation by dissemblance. : ① For this problem of a zoogony under Strife the dominant view has long been that of OBrien 1965 189 ss. for the absence of zoogony under Strife see Bollack 1965 108 ss. from them they sc. the ② Fr. 23.5 #κ τ%ν εC δεα π$σιν !λ$ γκια πορσ&νουσι painters compose forms resembling every item . ③ Μορφ$ refers to the shape as a harmonious whole Strife divides a consistent object. Elsewhere Empedocles generally uses δ$χα to describe how Strife separates the elements from each other. .νδιχα generally expresses a division into parts whereas δι'μορφα emphasises the division of a consistent whole. ④ See for instance the other two prominent similes in fr. 84 and 100. , ( ) , ); , [“ : ”] , ; , , , , ( 196 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 Empedocless catalogues also show the traces of a reform of the traditional technique. He proposes to correct traditional theologies not , by criticizing them from the outside but by using the same forms in a , fashion he deems correct. This is quite clear in fragments 121 122 and , 123 where Empedocles combines two processes naming new divinities , : and reforming the organization of the catalogues. He abandons the genealogical pattern as featured in Hesiods catalogues in the benefit of , other modes of structuring. For instance in fragments 122 and 123 a , , set of meaningful oppositions progressively structures the catalogue by successively opening several potentialities this was already in Hesiod ( , but it was given a less prominent role): topology, creation / destruction, living beings and their characteristics, etc . Fragment 121 is based on another technique : the catalogue ① ② provides a framework for the interpretation of the relationship between ( murder, , at the beginning of the catalogue), and the emergence of illnesses, woes and other scourges. human behaviors rancor , etc. The structure puts emphasis on the idea that the latter are the consequences of the former. The figures of repetitions composition and , Ritornell③ such as ring composition , , are also reworked by Empedocles spiral , and ① Fr. 122 !νθ )σαν Χθον$η τε κα, ^λι"πη τανα%πι! / Δ%ρ$ ! θ α= ματ"εσσα κα, _ρμον$η θεμερ%πι! / Καλλιστ; τ Α) σχρ$ τε Θ"ωσ' τε Δηνα$η τε / Νημερτ$! There were Earthly and farseeing Suneye bloody τ #ρ"εσσα μελ'γκαρπ"! τ ,σ'φεια Battle and noblebrow Harmony MostBeautiful and Ugly Swift and Slow lovely Infaillible and blackfruit Obscurity . Fr. 123 Φυσ; τε Φθιμ+νη τε κα, Ε,να$η κα, `γερσι! / Growth and Perishing Sleep and Κιν; τ ,στεμφ$! τε πολυστ +φαν "! τε Μεγιστ ; Awakeness Moving and Immobile and manycrowned Greatness . I consider l. 123.3 DK to be a paraphrasis by Cornutus for a different view see Picot 2012. ② Fr. 121 ...!τερπ+α χ%ρον / !νθα Φ"νο! τε Κ"το! τε κα, )λλων !θνεα Κηρ%ν / α,χμηρα$ τε Ν"σοι κα , Σ$ψιε! !ργα τε Nευστ' / .τη! !ν λειμ%να κατ% σκ"το! ... A joyless place where Slaughter Rancour and hordes of other violent (λ'σκουσιν. Deaths parching Diseases and Putrefactions and everything that flows roam in darkness among the field of Atè . ③ As defined by Van Otterlo 1945 as a repetition based on nonlinear and noncircular patterns. It allows the oral poet to structure his composition and his audience to structure their listening. : , , , , (“ , , ”) , , (“ : , , , , , , ”) ; , : , (“ , , , , ”) ( ) , , Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , given an argumentative force. The most important feature is not the return of identical words or phrases but the variation that the poet introduces within this repetition. This reveals the limited interpretative power of the textualanalogical line of interpretation. Their proponents focus too much on resemblance between instances of repeated lines and , hence lose sight of the role of variation in Empedocless progressive construction of his philosophical thought. Empedocles combines two epic techniques① Ritornell and episodic : composition. The notion of repetition is a bit of a simplification since “ ” it is not a technical concept of poetic composition , , and because it may lead us to focus on what is the same and to overlook the role , of variations. Empedocles makes use of this technique not only to , or part of line, but to hint at the lines more of a given section —which I would call , more refer to a single line general context technically , a given episode. The variation that is introduced between instances of repeated lines allows the audience to interpret the relationship between these argumentative sections or episodes. In addition to the external argumentative structure of the poem ( marked , ο > ν, etc. ), variations within Ritornell allow the poet to introduce an internal , or implicit , level of argumentation. For instance , let us examine briefly the repetition of by connectives like γ'ρ the verseendings ε) ! Xν -παντα and ε) ! -να κ"σμον. Lines 267 268 ( a( i) .6 7 ) of the poem On nature ② are only partially readable but , the verseendings ε) ! -να κ"σμον and #ξ 4νò! εAναι are repeated from two different passages of fr. 17 ( l. 2 = On nature 234 and l. 7 = On ① I develop this point in an article to be published in 2018 in the Yearbook of Ancient Greek Epic Gheerbrant 2018b . ② On nature lines 267 268 = ens. a I . 6 7 συνερχ" μεθ ε)! -να κ"σμον / through Love we come together in one world through δ$ εφυ πλ+ ον # ξ 4νò! εA ναι Strife it divided to be many from one . ( ] ] ) () ] , ([ ”) : ] ,[ 197 198 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 nature 239 these ) ; the former will be repeated as line 5 of fragment 26 . In instances of Ritornell, the verseendings and their contexts ① ② undergo a series of variation. Lines 267 268 feature a hybrid expression , by combining two different episodes: the generation of many from one at a cosmic level ( from l. 234 ) and the generation of compound bodies ( l. 240 ) . This aims at showing that, in all these cases, the power of unification ( and that of separation ) at stake is the same: at a cosmic level, at that of the world, and at that of living beings. It amounts to showing that the Sphere, the world and living beings may all ( individually) be considered to form a unity, albeit on different scales; the same process of unification, under different forms, characterizes various levels of the cosmos. The notion of episode is helpful in this context because it makes clear that what is repeated is not only a word or an expression former instance s took place. , but the whole context in which the () The study of how Empedocles makes use of traditional composition techniques of dactylic poetry shows that by composing a poem , , his aim is not merely to compose a work that is different in form from the earlier tradition of philosophical prose writing ( which is the sort of thing that Pherecydes of Syros does when he chooses to write a theogony in prose rather than in dactylic hexameter ), but rather to correct the earlier dactylic poetic tradition from within. In its very use of the composition techniques he corrects what could be perceived within his own system , , as inadequacies. , Therefore Empedocless ① On nature 233 234 = 17.1 2 διπλ #ρ+ω. τοτ+ μ+ν γ%ρ Xν η,ξ$θη μ"νον εA ναι / A twofold tale I shall tell at one #κ πλε"νων τοτ+ δ α> δι+φυ πλ+ον #ξ 4νò! εAναι time it grew to be one from many and at another it divided to be many from one . On nature 239 240 = 17.7 8 )λλοτε μ+ν Φιλ"τητι συνερχ"μεν ε) ! Xν -παντα / )λλοτε δ at one time all coming together through Love α> δ$χ -καστα φορε&μενα Νε$ κεο! !χθει at another again being borne away from each other by Strifes repulsion . ② Fr. 26.5 6 )λλοτε μ+ν Φιλ"τητι συνερχ"μεν ε) ! -να κ"σμον / )λλοτε δ α> at one time coming together into one world δ$χ -καστα φορε & μενα Νε $ κεο! !χθει through Love at another again being borne away from each other by Strifes repulsion . : , (“ , : ”) , : (“ , ”) : (“ , ”) 199 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , poetic composition can be understood as a reflective process of distancing from and amendment of the epic and didactic tradition , , : he expresses a critique towards this tradition , and overcomes it , from within. The addressees and the meaning given to his thought by the poet The study of the external and internal addressees of Empedocles , and that of the context of the poems performance sheds light on the , meaning of Empedocless project in the context of the Greek world of the 5 th century. For the addressees , the most prominent point of the argument is that the names and characterizations of the internal addressees Pausanias and the friends from Acragas are best accounted ( ) for as signifying pieces of information within the poetic construction as opposed to biographical data ) ( ①. Let us first turn to Pausanias②. His name and genealogy are mentioned in fragment 1 ③. His father is Anchitos whose name can be , interpreted as a hypocoristic based on )γχι and θε"!. His name thus means he who is close to the gods ,” and we here find the same motif as in fragment 3. Pausaniass own name is a meaningful one , because it is composed of πα&ω, “ to make cease”, and of !ν$η , “ grief, sorrow, distress. ” His name thus means “ he whose distress ceases” or “ he who makes ( others) distress cease. ” What does that mean in the context “ ④ See Rousseaus 1996 interpretation of Perses in Hesiods Works and Days. I developed this point further in a paper to be published in the volume on Hesiod and the Presocratics by Iribarren and Koning. Pausanias listen you ③ Fr. 1 Παυσαν$η σ' δ+ κλ5θι δαD φρονο! ,γχ$ του υ=+ son of the wise Anchitos . ④ This is probably one of the reasons why the ancient tradition interpreted Pausanias as a physician. ① ( ② : , ”) ) , (“ , , , 200 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 of Empedocless thought ? The substantive !ν$η refers to grief distress sorrow and trouble as consequence of human nature. ① , , , As early as the Odyssey the words , of the family of !ν$η express a disturbance of social ties and especially of hospitality②. In later poetry , , !ν$η and its cognates express the distress that originates in the disruption of other social bonds such as love friendship , , or familial relationships ③. , Empedocles reworks the notion of !ν$η so that it reaches beyond the various forms of social ties , to express a distress constitutive of the human condition. As Empedocles believes that birth and death are not the actual beginning and end of life he therefore provides a strong answer to existential questions about , ( and an answer that is essentially different from the one epic and didactic tradition provides) . In fragment 107 , he associates the feelings of pleasure and joy (E δομαι ) with Love, and that of distress (!νι'ομαι) with Strife. Thereby he connects his theory of feelings with his cosmological views. In his worldview, Strife divided mens faculties for understanding , and Strife is also the the meaning of human existence cause of mens feeling of distress. This distress will cease when Pausanias understands the poem when he sees it for what it is. , Thus Pausanias represents a listener who reached full understanding of Empedocless thought , and who put it into practice to make his existential distress cease. Empedocless thought in the poem On nature should not be reduced to the explanation of the cosmic cycle or to that of biological processes. The very names that Empedocles picked for Love and Strife show that their action reaches beyond the cosmic sphere to determine human actions as is made clear in fragment 17 lines 14 , ① ② ③ , Chantraine 2008 p.91. For instance in Od. 1.133 7.192 etc. For instance Theognis 76 124 210 258 344 991 1337 1356. , , , , , , , , , , , , 201 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : 26 On nature 245 257 ( ) ①. , The whole passage is introduced by the aorist imperative κλ5θι and is concluded by a present imperative , )κουε. As Philippe Rousseau argued in the case of Hesiods Works and Days② κλ5θι is a marked form , !κο&ω) ③. ( as opposed to the unmarked form, As a marked form κλ&ω entails that the narrator expects a , certain response from the addressee. For instance κλ& ω is always the , word used in prayers to the gods④ because a response is expected and , wished for—as opposed to !κο& ω, which means “ to listen ” without presupposing a given response. In our passage , the difference in aspect is also important: with the imperfective )κουε, the poet takes a stance on the general truthfulness of his poem. On the contrary, with the aorist κλ5θι, the narrator calls his addressees attention on the passage that immediately follows. Now , the following passage provides a catalogue of the six principles. In epic and didactic poetry the most prominent item of a , catalogue usually comes last especially when a longer development is , ① On nature 245 257 = fr. 17.14 26 !λλ )γε μ&θων κλ5θι μ'θη γ'ρ τοι φρ+να! / !! γ%ρ κα, πρ, ν !ειπα πιφα&σκων πε$ ρατα μ&θων / δ$ πλ #ρ+ω τοτ+ μ+ν αKξει γ%ρ Xν η,ξ$θη μ"νον εA ναι / #κ πλε"νων τοτ+ δ α> δι+φυ πλ+ον #ξ 4νò! εA ναι / π5ρ κα, "δωρ κα , γα*α κα , ( + ρο! )πλετον "ψο! / Νε * κ " ! τ ο,λ " μενον δ$χα τ%ν / τ σ' ν"& ! τ'λαντον -π'ντ( / κα, Φιλ"τη! #ν το* σιν C ση μ%κ"! τε πλ'το! τε δ+ρκευ μηδ μμασιν Fσο τεθηπ;! / Eτι! κα, θνητο* σι νομ$ ζεται !μφυτο! )ρθροι! / τ6 τε φ$ λα φρον+ουσι κα, )ρθμια !ργα τελο5σι / Γηθοσ&νην καλ+οντε! #π;νυμον (δ / τ οK τι! μετ σοισιν 4 λισσομ+ νην δεδ ηκε / θνητò! !ν$ρ ,φροδ$ την σ' δ )κουε λ"γου στ"λον ο,κ !πατηλ"ν But come listen to my discourse for learning increases your phrenes. For as I said before when I was stating the limits of my discourse a twofold tale I shall tell at one time it grew to be one only from many and at another it divided to be many from one fire water earth and measureless height of air Strife between them equal in every direction and Love within them matched to them in length and in width. Contemplate her with your mind and do not sit staring dazed. As being inborn in the joints of men she is customarily used by mortals thanks to her they conceive thoughts of love and perform joining works naming her by the names of Joyful and Aphrodite. No one perceives her as she whirling in his eyes no mortal man. But you hear the trustworthy equipage of my discourse . ② Rousseau 1996 pp.103 104. who borrows it ③ For the concept of marked / unmarked terms see Nagy 1990 5 8 from the Prague school of linguistics. ④ For instance Hom. Il. 1.37 42 451 456 5.115 120 10.284 294 16.514 526. : , · · , · , , , , , , · · , , · · “ , , , : : , , , , , , , , ( , , ) , , ; , , , ”) , , , , ; ( , ), ; ; 202 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 devoted to this last item① 251 7 ( = fr. 17.20 —which in this case is Love. In On nature 26 ), the various aspects of the power of Love are expressed within the framework of a ring composition. ② Love exerts her power on the cosmic cycle , on animal biology , and on human behaviors. The center of this ring composition features her role in mens thoughts and actions which explains the denominations of Joyful and , Aphrodite with which men name Love. The meaning of the passage is that in spite of her omnipresence human beings make use νομ$ ζεται , , of Love without fully understanding her nature③ ( ) ; and in the poem On nature Empedocles proposes to acknowledge and to account for all aspects of the power of Love. Therefore in a nutshell , Pausanias is characterized as an ideal listener to Empedocless poem, since he bears in his very name the result of its full understanding: understanding the poem enables one to , appease the distress that rises from human condition. The Purifications are addressed to a group of friends who dwell in Acragas④. In fragment 112 the friends are characterized as hospitable , as devoid of evils and as acknowledging Empedocless godly , , nature ⑤. The beginning of fragment 112 raises two traditional issues that of the : ① See for instance the catalogue of the Muses in which Calliope is named last with an emphasis on her being the most important Th. 79 . See also Cronos in the catalogue of the Titans Th. 137 138 . ② On ring composition see Rousseau 2011 and the bibliography he provides. ③ The interpretation of l. 17. 22 is a matter of contention the dominant view is that νομ$ ζω is a verb of opinion and which means that human beings perceive the role of Love in the generation of their bodies Wright 1995 167 Laks and Most 2016 V 412 . Bollack convincingly argued that the verb here has its original meaning of to be customarily used men used Love without understanding it but he unnecessarily reduces that to sexuality 1969 III p.69 . But we should include all aspects of her power that the mortals can use filial love piety etc. ④ They are mentioned in fr. 112 and 114. ⑤ Fr. 112.1 4a @ φ$ λοι οa μ+γα )στυ κατ% ξανθο5 ,κρ'γαντο! / να$ ετ !ν )κρα π"λεο! !γαθ%ν μελεδ$μονε! !ργων / ξε$ νων α) δο* οι λιμ+νε! κακ"τητο! )πειροι / Friends who dwell in the great city down the blond Acragas across the χα$ρετ ε . heights of the town careful for works of good merciful harbours for strangers ignorant of evil hail . , ( ( , ) ) , ; ( ( ( , ; ), , , ) “ ” “ ”: , , ) , , : , ( ) (“ , , , !”) , , , , , , , 203 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : situation of enunciation , , and that of the extension of the group of friends. A biographical line of interpretation proposed that Empedocles was addressing the poem as a missive to the people of Acragas①. There is no need to assume that the addressees are a historical group of people. More convincingly , this address was analysed as a literary device ②. Bollack proposes that Empedocles here sketches what a city that was converted to his philosophical thought would look like as opposed to , the cities where he has not yet managed to communicate his message. ( The inhabitants of which are described in the rest of the fragment. ) ③ The question of the extension of the community is important because what is at stake is whether the poet addresses an elite or if his message was meant to be of use to the Greek world in its entirety. I agree with Bollacks arguments in favor of the latter ④ : in his use of the word “ Acragas”, Empedocles makes clear that he proposes to understand it as “ the summit of the earth. ” The statement that the friends live !ν )κρα π"λεω! does not mean that the friends only live in the heights of the city ( as if they were elites, as opposed to the rest of the inhabitants), but that Acragas, which is built on a hill, becomes a summit in itself as compared to the rest of the Greek world. Our characterization of these friends and our reconstruction of the poems context of performance reveal a tension : the friends from Acragas are characterized in a fashion that is typical of sympotic poetry ( such as elegy), in which the addressees are a group who share values and moral qualities with the speaker. Gregory Nagy interpreted the ① Diels for instance surmised that Empedocles was in exile in Southern Italy and was attempting to flatter the people of Acragas so that they would call him back 1898 1969 pp. 125 130 . Tucker 1931 proposed that the fragment was an ironical and despising address to the poets ennemies. Osborne considers that the poem was pronounced in Acragas but that this address is ironical 1987 . ② Trépanier 2004 p.48 analyses how with this address Empedocles takes a stance in the tradition of didactic poetry. ③ Bollack 2003 p.55. ④ Ibid. p.53. ([ ) ( ) ( ) ( , , , ) ] , 204 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 addressees in Pindar as characterized by three main features σοφο$ , !γαθο$ and φ$ λοι. Hence : ① they are , Pindars poetry is an α A νο!, because it conveys its real meaning to an audience who share those characteristic features , and a wrong message to the others. Now, in Empedocles the friends from Acragas are presented as a community of , ( such as hospitality ) and ideas ( they acknowledge that Empedocles is a god ), as opposed to the rest of the Greek world . shared values ② Therefore this social and geographical characterization of Empedocless addressees is opposed to epic poetrys universal or virtually universal , addressee. On the other hand , , we know that the Purifications were recited at the Olympic games, most likely during the panegyry , by a ③ professional rhapsode named Cleomenes④. The Olympic games are the Panhellenic hence universal occasion of performance par excellence⑤. , , Now if we admit that Cleomenes was a professional rhapsode , , that he recited the Purifications during the panegyry at the behest of Empedocles —none of these claims being selfevident—a strong sense of tension arises between the social and geographical determination of the addressee and the universal dimension of a performance connected with the Olympic games. How should we explain it It does not mean that ? Empedocles intended to address the poem to a group of happy fews as opposed to the rest of the Greek world , whom he would despisingly consider not able to understand his intellectual message. On the contrary this choice means that the community of friends in Acragas is , Nagy 1989 pp.10 11. See fr. 112.5 12. ③ No ancient testimony allows us to believe that there were poetic competitions as part of the Olympic Games before or after the reformation that took place in 468. The most convincing option is that the recitation of the Purifications took place during the paneguris that is the gathering of the Greeks prior to the actual beginning of the games. We have testimonies according to which this assembly was an occasion for reciting various texts in poetry and prose Diodorus of Sicily mentions recitations of poetry D. S. 14. 109 Lucian recitations of Herodotus Herodotus I.23 . ④ Diogenes Laertius VIII.63 and Athenaeus Deipn. 14.12.21 Kaibel. ⑤ For limits to Nagys views of Panhellenism see Rousseau 1996 p.164. ① , ② , ( : : ); , , ) , , , , 205 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , not presented by the poem as a precondition to its interpretation but as , a consequence of its understanding by the audience. The listener is invited to become part of this group of friends if he agrees to develop the qualities that they possess : Empedocles invited the Greeks who gathered at the panegyry to become a community like that of the friends from Acragas. We can go further and suggest that the Purifications can be considered as the basis for the tradition of panegyric discourse in prose. Indeed Gorgias Lysias and Isocrates later declaimed panegyrics in , , , prose in the festal assembly , ( paneguris ) , of the Olympic games. Gorgias who was considered to be the disciple of Empedocles invites , , the Greeks to concord on the basis of a struggle against the barbarians①. This literary genre aims at creating a community and Empedocless Purifications may have played a part in the constitution of this genre although we do not possess enough evidence to prove it decisively. In any case , , the intended aims of the two poems, as we can reconstruct them on the basis of the study of their addressees and of the performance context of the Purifications reaches beyond the boundaries , of the sort of philosophical reflection that is usually associated with the Presocratics. We can find traces of philosophical reflections on politics and ethics in Empedocles although they have little in common with , those of Socrates in terms of form and nature. , Strife and poetic composition The role of Strife is never mentioned in the surviving fragments ① Gorgias fr. 7 8 and 9 DK his panegyric discourse was composed in 402 or 398 Lysias composed his discourse of which we possess nine fragment in 388 or 384 in favor of concord against the tyranny of Dionysius I of Syracuse the accepted date of Isocratess panegyric is 380 and it is considered not to have been delivered orally. , ,, ( ); , , ); , ( 206 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 that bear on poetic composition. On the contrary Empedocless Muse is , characterized as dependent on the power of Love. This absence of Strife may simply mean that Empedocles did not believe that Strife could or should play a part in poetic composition. However there is no apparent , incompatibility between poetic composition and Strifes power —to the contrary. Strifes power is technically necessary to separate one syllable from each other a given part of the poem from another. In a more , abstract fashion , we may very well believe that Empedocless analysis of the poetic tradition and of its features is ultimately dependent on the power of Strife whereas the fashioning of the poem as a consistent , , whole, is dependent on the power of Love. Besides, composing or performing poetry is not possible when everything is united in the Sphere hence Strifes role must be necessary in a concrete way for the ; , poem to be composed acknowledged its role. —although Empedocles does not seem to have As a consequence , the apparent absence of Strife from the fragments that deal with poetry could very well be an expressive gap deliberately left open in the text. This idea may be argued for on the basis of the end of fragment 115 —which is the only fragment of the Purifications that presents the reasons and circumstances of the banishment of the daimones. First the narrator presents the divine law , that was broken by the guilty gods, and their exile ( 115.1 12 ); in this section he does not speak in the first person and describes the law and the crime in very general terms. Then , in lines 13 4, the narrator speaks in the first person to analyze his present situation as that of a guilty daimon who was banished because he had put his trust in Strife ①. Now the words the narrator uses in l. 13 4 are marked in the rest , of the corpus : ① Fragment 115.13 14 τ%ν κα, #γ2 ν5ν ε) μι φυγ%! θε"θεν κα, !λ$τη! / νε$ κε. Among them I too am now an exile from the gods and a wanderer μαινομ+ν& π$ συνο! because I placed my trust in raging Strife . : , (“ , ”) , , Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : , — Madness ( μαινομ+ν&) is here a feature of Strife. In fragment 3 Empedocles used the substantive μαν$η to refer to the madness of a , vague τ%ν , which is generally taken to refer to other poets or philosophers①. There is no other occurrence of any word based on μαν$η in the fragments. — The motive of the trust we put in someone is expressed by the adjective π$ συνο!, which is derivated from πε$ θω via πιστ"! . In the poem On nature, this lexical field refers to the power of persuasion of poetic discourse, as we saw earlier, especially when the poet reflects on ② the relationship between the poem and the observation of reality. It is thus noteworthy that in fr. 115. 14 Empedocles uses in a single hemistich , , , , two terms whose meanings are elsewhere tightly connected with the new conceptions he elaborates. If we consider that the narrator of the Purifications was banished and forced to incarnate in order to be purified of his crime which he committed due to the trust , , it is then very remarkable that, in fragment 3, the notion of purity ( καθαρ%ν στομ'των, l. 3.2 ) was also given specific he put in Strife importance. Thus all these elements function as hints in the text that invite the listener to draw for himself these conclusions concerning , , the relationship between the daimons crime and the new definition of poetic discourse. We here have a body of evidence that allows us to accept that within the Purifications the new poetic discourse featured , , in the poem On nature works as a counterpart of the crime that the daimon commited towards the divine the poem On nature is reanalyzed : in the Purifications as an act of piety towards the gods — and especially towards Love since the Muse is dependent on her power. The aim of , the poem is to describe the role of the four elements and that of Love Bollack considers that it ① Diels considered τ%ν to refer to Parmenides 1901 107 refers to those who profess the false promises of fr. 111 DK 1969 III p. 26 Sturz and Karsten preferred not to give a definite referent to the pronoun Sturz 1805 p. 639 Karsten 1838 p.175 Wright 1995 p.158 . ② Chantraine 2008 pp.868 869. ( , ; , , ) , ); ( , , ); ( , ; 207 208 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 and Strife at every level of the universe but the narrator describes the ; poem as dependent on the power of a Muse connected to Love. Hence the poem On nature makes sense in the context of the Purifications as , , a counterpart of the trust the narrator put in Strife at the expense of all other gods , and which motivated his crime. We may speak of “ counterpart” since, as I argued, the aim of the poem On nature is to give justice to the role of each principle. Conclusion Empedocles intended to provide a new definition of traditional theology a new interpretation of the world and a new understanding , , of human nature. By describing his Muse as connected to the power of Love and by advocating a piety directed towards the true gods , , he takes a stance on the role of poetic composition within his philosophical system and , in which reformations of theology , cosmology , biology , —consequently—poetry are tightly connected. He also explains why the earlier poets are mistaken: they modified the true message of the Muse to attain mortal honor. He then constructs a close relationship between what the poets express and the concrete conditions of performance of their poems. His own poetic composition is based on very specific epistemological grounds when the poetic discourse bears on the world , justified from within Empedocless system by a biological argument : : there is a collaboration between sense perception and poetry. This is Strife divided mens faculties of knowledge within their bodies. When the poetic discourse bears on gods who escape sense perception narrator lets the Muse speak. , the The various levels of poetic technique meter and prosody the use ( , of similes of catalogues of ring and spiral composition of Ritornell , , , 209 Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project : and of episodic composition ) , are adapted to the project of the philosopherpoet. His work on the choice of the internal addressees also allows him to add an ethical aspect to his thought and to take a stance , on the role he gives to his original philosophical knowledge in the Greek world of his time the internal addressees represent a projection of what : the audience will become if they understand and accept the contents of the poems. I have argued , finally, that Empedocless project was unified through the poem On nature and the Purifications. The latter interprets the former as an atonement for the crime that was committed by the daimon when he put his trust in Strife —at the expense of all the other gods or divine principles. The Purifications and the poem On nature , of which we may collect traces in the fragments, that bears on the notions of madness, persuasion, piety, feature a thematic network and purification. Therefore at all the levels of meaning and poetic construction that , we examined we can conclude that poetry and philosophy are unified , by Empedocles in one single project , both intellectual and aesthetic. One of the strengths of Empedocless proposal is to integrate poetic and cultural traditions on which he critically draws to reform them into a ( ) , philosophical poem which provides new and strong answers to the fundamental questions that define human beings and our understanding of the universe. ( Xavier Gheerbrant, Assistant Professor of Philosophy, Sichuan University , School of Public Administration, Department of Philosophy) References Barnes Jonathan. 1982. The Presocratic philosophers. 2 vol. London New York , : 210 西方古典学辑刊·第一辑 Routledge. Bergk Wilhelm Theodor. [ 1839 ] 1886. Commentatio de prooemio Empedoclis. Berlin: Druckerei der Kniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften; repr. in Rudolf Heinrich Peppmüller ( ed. ) . Kleine Philologische Schriften. 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