Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles:
Two Poems, One Project
Xavier Gheerbrant
Pour Philippe Rousseau
Abstract
I argue that Empedocless philosophical thought and his choice to
compose poetry participate in a unified and consistent project which is
,
both aesthetic and intellectual. The medium Empedocles chose is part of
his philosophical message and the relationship that he constructs between
,
poetry and philosophy is by nature one of necessity. Empedocles reforms
the conception of poetry by intertwining it with his original theories on
cosmology
,
, biology, and
on the divine. He thus draws an essential
connection between poetry and the philosophical thought that is
expressed in his poem. This has effects on how he adapts traditional
composition techniques of dactylic poetry to his original intent. He thus
My reflection benefited from the advices of Léna Bourgeois Anne de Cremoux Gérard
Journée André Laks Sarah Lagrou JeanClaude Picot Philippe Rousseau Rossella Saetta
Cottone and many other colleagues and friends. I am also grateful to the participants and
organizers of the fascinating conference Comparing classical scholarships West and China
Fudan 24 26 November 2017 and especially to Zhang Wei as well as to Wang Wei and
Xian Ruobing. I thank James Mire for English language editing of this paper.
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西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
corrects the earlier dactylic poetic tradition from the inside. Furthermore
,
Empedocles reflects on the role of his philosophical knowledge in the
Greek world
, which is apparent from a study of his addressees ( both
internal and external ) . I argue, finally, that Empedocless project is
unified through the poems On nature and the Purifications: the latter
interprets the former as a counterpart to the crime that was committed by
the daimon when he put his trust in Strife
gods or divine principles.
—at the expense of all the other
The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationship between
Empedocless choice to compose poems in dactylic hexameter and his
,
philosophical thought①. I argue that his philosophical thought and his
choice to compose poetry participate in a unified and consistent project
,
which is both aesthetic and intellectual. The medium Empedocles chose
is part of his philosophical message
,
and the relationship that he
constructs between poetry and philosophy is by nature one of necessity.
I first provide a developed state of the art in which I endeavour to
,
make clear not only what are the main trends of interpretation of this
issue as such but also which stances underlined scholarly approaches to
,
Empedocles even before this question was first raised. I then examine
how Empedocles defines his poetic theory on the basis of a study of the
Muse and how this definition has consequences on his poetic practice.
,
I finally examine the meaning he gave to his work in the context of
Greek culture of the 5 th century before proposing a new hypothesis on
,
the relationship between his two poems.
① This paper presents the main conclusion of my 2017 book enriched by three recent
studies I have conducted since then on the relationship with Pindar on Ritornell and episodic
composition and on the role of ethics in Empedocless On nature as a response to Hesiod. I
also intend to make the main results and arguments more accessible to the English reader. The
numbering of the fragments follows that of Diels and Kranz although I essentially use Víteks
2006 edition the numbering of On nature that is here fr. 17 + ens. a follows that of Laks
and Most 2016. I am in favor of the twopoems hypothesis although this idea is only necessary
to the last part of the present paper.
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Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
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State of the art
In general studies on the poem s of Empedocles choose either to
,
()
reconstruct his philosophical thought or to analyse his poetics
choice of words his practice of the dactylic hexameter etc.
,
, )
①.
two approaches ultimately share a common presupposition
,
( his
These
which
consists in the belief that this dichotomy between form and content is
relevant in shaping the scholarly interpretation of a philosopherpoet
such as Empedocles②. On the one hand
,
scholars who engage in
“ formal ”
reconstructing his philosophical thought tend to refer to
criteria insofar as the criteria allow them to take a position on a passage
that is debated for reasons of interpretation or of textual criticism
tend to leave these considerations aside the rest of the
time③.
—and
On the
other hand scholars who analyse the aesthetic and formal features of
,
Empedocless poems tend to avoid taking a stance on matters of
philosophical interpretation④.
Therefore neither approach deals in a systematic fashion with all
the issues raised by Empedocless philosophical poems
,
but they
presuppose that poetical issues could or should be distinguished from
,
,
the philosophical issues in the practice of interpretation. This depends
partly on the characteristics of the division of knowledges in universities.
If such a dichotomy long characterized scholarly approaches to
① For instance Rossetti and Santaniello 2004 tend to study both linguistic and
philosophical aspects of Empedocless work separately.
② For the Aristotelian origin of such views see Bernabé 1979 p. 376 . For a clear
expression of this line of thought about Parmenidess choice of verse see Barnes 1982 I
p.155 .
③ For instance the general approach of OBriens reconstruction of the cosmic cycle
1969 and an important part of scholarship since then.
④ For instance Lorussos 2005 study of repetitions in Empedocles takes for granted both
the text and the interpretation of Martin and Primavesi 1999. Bordigoni 2004 pp.250 252
analyzes the formulary variations in the names of Aphrodite in Empedocles but does not propose
an interpretation of the role of Love on these grounds.
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西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
Empedocles this state of affairs began to change in the last third of the
20
th
,
century,
when scholars became interested in interpreting the
relationship between poetry and philosophy in Empedocles. The first
move in this direction consisted in discussing Empedocless choice of
poetry in its historical context. This is indeed an actual issue. In the 6 th
century B.C.E. Anaximander and Anaximenes wrote prose treatises in
,
a context where poetry had been the dominant medium of expression
before the emergence of prose writing in the 6
th
,
century was made
possible by a series of technical innovations①. Most early Greek
philosophers composed prose treatises
the time of Empedocles
—Anaxagoras himself did so at
—, and from Plato onwards prose became the
normal form of expression for philosophical thought. One of the reasons
why the first philosophers chose prose over poetry is that prose enabled
them to distinguish in a radical fashion the new form of enquiry they
proposed from cosmotheogonies composed in poetry
( for instance by
Hesiod . Here is not the place to discuss the relationship between
)
Hesiod and the first philosophers② but both Hesiod and the early Greek
,
philosophers proposed cosmological models③
based on different assumptions
,
although theirs were
— the difference lies less in the issue
they examine than in the theoretical models they built to provide
answers to the problems.
Asking why Xenophanes Parmenides and Empedocles chose to
,
,
compose philosophical poems is then grounded from a historical and
philosophical point of view. For composing prose treatises necessitated a
complex set of conditions a technical process to transform the plant
:
papyrus into a writing surface ④ the commercial networks to transport
;
See Laks 2001.
An edited volume on Hesiod and the Presocratics is now being prepared by Leopoldo
Iribarren and Hugo Koning.
③ For Hesiod see for instance Clay 2003.
④ Pfeiffer 1968 25 Knox 1985 4 see also Herodotus V.58.12 16.
①
②
,
, ;
, ;
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
the papyrus① the possibility to learn the alphabet at least accessible to
;
the social élites
an audience
(
) ; material conditions of dissemination of the work to
②
, and so on
③.
All this entails the establishment of new
social practices and the implementation of means and of situations of
communication which were only progressively entrenched in the Greek
,
society. If such a complex system had already been established albeit
,
in a limited way
, and if an audience existed for philosophical prose
treatises at the turn of the 6 and 5 centuries, then it is far from self
evident that Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Empedocles would choose
th
th
to compose poetry. Did they choose to return to an earlier form of
expression Or is there more to it
?
?
Raising the question in historical terms such as these generally
entails two main series of consequences.
1. The conclusions that are reached emphasize the practical and
pragmatic advantages of poetry over prose ④ scholars put forward the
:
argument that poetry is easier to memorise than prose
; that poetry
reaches a wider audience than prose in the Greek society of the late 6 th
and early 5 th centuries that poetry provides the poet with the authority
;
of a goddess
— the Muse — whereas a prosetreatise relies on the sole
authority of the author ; that poetry allows for options of organization
and communication of the subject matter, such as ring composition ,
⑤
that have no direct equivalent in prose ⑥.
The trading post of Naucratis was founded in the second half of the 7 th century.
② The first traces we have of an institutional education system for the alphabet belong to
the 5 th century Knox 1985 pp.6 7 Harris 1989 pp.57 59 Ford 2003 24 27 . The oldest
testimony is that of Herodotus VI.27.2 9 which tells the fall of a schools roof in Chios in 496.
③ On this discussion see below.
④ For this line of analysis see Long 1985 pp.245 246 Most 1999 p.339 pp.352
353 Kahn 2003 pp.157 158 Granger 2007 pp.416 417 and pp.426 430.
fr. 1
⑤ See the affirmations of authority at the beginning of Hecataeuss treatise
Jacoby .
⑥ This last aspect is in my opinion debatable it cannot be held that prose writing is
unable to use poetic modes of organization of the linguistic material.
①
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西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
2. In this light
, choosing poetry is generally interpreted as not
choosing prose①. The emphasis lies in the opposition between prose and
poetry as two equally possible options for expression of a philosophical
thought. The exact interpretation depends on how we envision the
modes of diffusion of prose treatises in the 6 th and early 5 th centuries②.
However this way of raising the question very often means overlooking
,
the relationship between the medium and the thought that a given author
expresses within this medium. Two groups are opposed
and poets
( prose writers
) without always paying proper attention to the reasons for
individual choices.
This approach reaches conclusions that are well grounded but their
,
limit is that they focus on aspects that are ultimately external to the
construction of the ancient authors philosophical thoughts and to the
medium in which each author expresses his philosophy. Therefore they
say little on the philosophical project that underlies the choice of poetry
or prose.
As a matter of fact this line of analysis has been enriched by a
,
series of approaches which proposed to analyse the problem of the
relationship of medium and thought by focusing on the texts of a given
author himself
In 1990
—here, Empedocles.
, Laura Gemelli Marciano concluded her book with the
For a noteworthy exception see for instance Most 1999.
The question is whether prose treatises were used as a memento within the school by
the master and his disciples Pfeiffer 1968 p.29 Thesleff 1990 p.111
if they were sheer
technical writings intended for specialists Kahn 2003 p. 151
or if they were intended to
disseminate outside the school. I agree with the latter view which finds a strong argument in the
fact that the treatise by Pherecydes of Syros opens with a play on the rhythm of the dactylic
hexameter in order to mark his difference from Hesiod hence the intended mode of diffusion
was oral on this aspect I take the liberty to referring to my study Gheerbrant 2018a . The
two other views are generally argued for on the basis of later sources or historical
reconstructions which are in my view not as strong. On the prose of Pherecydes and that of
Anaximander see Laks 2001. For the elements we have on the diffusion of prosetreatises in the
5 th and 4 th centuries see Thomas 2003.
①
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②
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Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
idea that Empedocles should be acknowledged for his prominent role as
a poet①
;
that he certainly had expert knowledge of Aeschyluss
Oresteia and that sheer philosophical analyses of his poems are not fully
satisfactory insofar as they cannot account for the poetic aspects of his
work. We may however regret that her study of how Empedocles uses
and subverts the traditional language of poetry does not connect her
conclusions to the general problems of interpretation raised by
Empedocless philosophy more systematically ②.
More recently a second series of works examined the problem of
,
the relationship between medium and philosophical thought in
Empedocles. The model that was developed is that of a textual analogy
between form and content③. For instance when Empedocles expresses
,
the idea of cyclicity that of the recurrence of identity
), he does so by
repeating words and expressions in his verse. Those repetitions imitate ,
within the poetic medium, the semantic content that is denoted—which
(
is why we can speak of a textual analogy. One of the major proponents
of this view was Annette RosenfeldLffler④. She argues that poetry
works in Empedocles as a microcosm that imitates his cosmological
( as the subtitle of her book makes clear: “ cosmology and
metaphor”) . She favors the idea of a homology between the Muse and
Love, between the chariot of poetry and the elaboration of the
doctrine
cosmological doctrine.
The general problem of this line of analysis is that its proponents
do not go far enough. Although the textual analogy is described and
Gemelli Marciano 1990 p.209.
Such as that of the reconstruction of the cosmic cycle and the number of zoogonies in
each cycle.
③ Graham 1988 p.305 Osborne 1998 p.27 Most 1999 pp.353 356 he is the first
to describe this phenomenon as a textual analogy
Rosenfeld 2006 p. 140 Wersinger
2008 p.97 Santoro 2013 pp.192 195 Hardie 2013 p.211. It is generally held that the poem
reenacts the notion of cyclical repetition or the cycle between one and many or the constant
interchange between the elements.
④ RosenfeldLffler 2006.
①
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西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
analysed
, it
is rarely used as a hermeneutical tool to address the
interpretative issues raised by the thought of Empedocles. Therefore we
could say that this line of analysis is not sufficient to overcome the
dichotomy mentioned at the beginning of this paper. One of the reasons
for this state of affairs is that
when they analyze repetition in
,
Empedocles scholars tend to focus on similarities and identity and to
,
neglect the differences between instances of repeated lines
—whereas
taking them in consideration would lead to reconstructing and discussing
the relationship between the main parts of Empedocless cosmological
account which amounts to giving this model of textual analogy an
,
interpretative force in philosophical terms.
The sole interpreter who examined the features of the medium of
composition and the philosophical thought together is Jean Bollack①. He
analyzes in a very systematic fashion how Empedocles works on the
,
,
various aspects of the language of the poetic tradition
forms of organization of the poetic material
( words, syntax,
) in order to construct and
express his philosophical thought. In his hermeneutical practice , how
the poet works on the medium is thus a prominent feature of his
philosophical reflection. However Bollack never directly questioned the
,
nature of the relationship between medium and thought
: his analysis
rests on the assumption that poetry and philosophy are united in a
relation of necessity in Empedocles but he never proved this view as
,
such.
There is thus a space in scholarship to raise this question on a new
basis interpreting the relationship between the medium of expression
:
and the nature of Empedocless philosophical thought. There is more to
it than mere reflection on form and content. For dactylic hexameter is
not simply a form of expression
( that is, it cannot be reduced to a
① Bollack 1965 1968 2003. Along the same lines as Bollack
reflection to the Presocratics in general see Bernabé 1976.
— ;
,
, but extending the
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
metrical pattern . It is above all a poetic tradition which conveys
)
typical topics typical modes of expression typical words and typical
phrasings.
,
,
,
The Muse and poetic theory
Empedocles places the Muse in the center of a relationship
involving gods and men. He does so by providing a new definition for
the three terms of this relationship. He redefines human existence by
stating that birth and death are not absolute beginning and end ① but
,
rather processes of mixing and separation of the four elements which
are what actually exist②. In so doing
,
, Empedocles also redefines the
nature of the gods, by stating that the four elements, as well as Love
and Strife, are the real gods .
The redefinition of the Muse essentially takes place in fragment 3 ,
and also in fragments 4 and 131. Now, fragment 3 is closely connected
③
to fragment 2. They are cited together by Sextus Empiricus in the
context of a debate about the role of sense perception and reason in
reaching true knowledge④. What is at stake in fragment 3
, in
its
relation to fragment 2 is to reform the conditions under which poetry is
,
able to formulate truth
,
and Empedocles does so in the general
framework of his cosmology. He thus redefines the Muse
source or rather the conveyer of his poetic speech
( as the
), and at the same
time how the Muse relates to the poet, to his audience, and to reality in
,
,
general.
This testimony by Sextus Empiricus has been a matter of contention.
①
②
③
④
Emped. fr. 8 11 and 15 DK.
Fr. 8.3 4.
Fr. 6.
Sextus Empiricus AM. VII.122 125.
,
,
177
178
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
Sextuss aim is apparently to show that Empedocles thought that truth
could be reached by a collaboration between reason and sense
perception
( if the former controls the latter )
①.
He first states that
according to some the criterion for truth is not sense perception but right
reason /ρθò! λ"γο!
), and that this right reason is twofold: the one is
divine and ineffable, the other is human and nonineffable . Then
(
②
Sextus quotes lines 1 8a of fragment 2 in order to show that
Empedocles had ruled out sense perception as a criterion and lines 8b
,
9 to state that truth could be reached by human λ "γο! to a certain
extent. He then cites fragment 3 to illustrate that men can reach truth if
reason controls the senses. Now the problem is that Sextus quotes
fragment 3 as a whole to illustrate this point whereas only lines 9 13
seem to provide a confirmation of his
,
idea③.
However this reproach
,
does not hit the mark. For the first eight lines of fragment 3 provide
Sextus with the divine ineffable λ"γο! with which he began the gods
,
:
that are at the origin of poetic speech and the Muse that conveys it to
,
the poet.
The new definition of poetic speech lines 1 8 takes place within
)
(
a discussion on the role of sense perception in accessing knowledge.
Empedocles accepts that sense perception can make men access truth if
we use senseperception under precise conditions
introduce any hierarchy between the senses
:
we should not
, and we should consider
how we perceive the objects of sense perception. This view is opposed
to those represented in fragment 2
, where Empedocles discusses the
epistemological bases on which men usually elaborate their views on
① AM. VII.122 Some others say that according to Empedocles the criterion of truth is
not sense perception but the right reason.
② AM. VII.122.
③ On this basis recent scholarship proposed to consider Sextuss testimony confused
and fr. 3 made up by Sextus or his source from several passages of the original poem given the
fact that the relationship of lines 6 8 with the rest of the fragment raises further issues Wright
1995 p.157 Inwood 2001 pp.214 216 Trépanier 2004 p.53 .
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Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
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their own existence and on the world Empedocles opposes an approach
:
that consists in electing as a principle what men first happen to
encounter①. The stress should thus not bear on the object we perceive
but on the process of perception
,
, to avoid scattering our effort for
understanding into a variety of objects of sense perception.
The part of fragment 3 that deals with poetry works as a turning
point between Empedocless critical and positive accounts of sense
perception. The most prominent steps in the argument are as follows
1. In lines 3.1
2②
,
:
the poet addresses the gods to ask for
inspiration. However he does not ask inspiration to formulate a theme
,
or a topic. This fact was overlooked by almost all the scholarly tradition
and it is yet of crucial importance. Whereas the poet of the Iliad asks
( μ%νιν )ειδε, Il. 1 ), and
whereas the poet of the Odyssey asks the Muse to sing one man,
Odysseus ( )νδρα μοι !ννεπε, Od. 1 ), Empedocles himself does not
ask the gods to sing the origin of the world or the cosmic cycle, or the
his Muse to sing the wrath of Achilleus
six principles. What we find on the contrary is a claim for a certain type
of speech one that is pure and that comes from pious mouths
:
(“ From
”, l. 2 ) . This is a complete break
with the tradition of dactylic poetry, and what is prominent here is the
pious mouths derive a pure stream
respect of a correct relationship between gods and men.
2. Now the way the divine is characterized in lines 1 2 is
,
unexpectedly underdetermined. The gods are referred to in a vague
,
① Fr. 2.3 8a πα5ρον δ #ν ζω6σι β$ ου μ+ρο! !θρ$σαντε! / 7κ& μοροι καπνο*ο
δ$ κην !ρθ+ντε! !π+πταν / α,τò μ"νον πεισθ+ντε! <τ& προσ+κυρσεν -καστο! / π'ντοσ
#λαυν"μενοι τò δ <λον ... εKχεται ε"ρε* ν / ο"τω! οKτ #πιδερκτ% τ'δ !νδρ'σιν οKτ
Having seen that the portion of life attributed to their
#πακουστ' / οKτε ν"ωι περιληπτ'.
existence was short they quicktodie borne in air just as smoke they fly off convinced
only by that they happened to have met first when they were driven in all directions and that
he boasts ... that he found it is the whole. In these conditions men cannot perceive that with
their eyes or hear it or comprehend it with their minds .
② Fr. 3.1 2 !λλ% θεο, τ%ν μ+ν μαν$ ην !ποτρ+ ψατε γλ;σση! / # κ δ #σ$ ων
But gods whereas you divert their madness from
στομ'των καθαρ*ν /χετε&σατε πηγ$ν
my tongue from holy mouths derive a pure flow .
:
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西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
fashion as θεο$
, without giving any precision on what or who they
exactly are. My proposal to explain this is that the proem of On nature
features so to speak a doubletrigger device during the first listening
:
,
the audience does not yet know the main features of Empedocless
cosmology and theology and naturally think that the poet refers by
( Zeus and the others ); during a
second listening, or during the first but in a retrospective fashion, when
the audience learns that, for Empedocles, the true gods are the four
elements, Love and Strife, and so on, the meaning of the first two
θεο$ to the gods of the tradition
lines of fr. 3 becomes very different. They then amount to placing the
poets claim for inspiration and for piety and his general depiction of
,
poetry under the patronage of the six cosmic principles who also are
,
the true θεο$
according to Empedocles. Thus the principles of the
cosmic cycles also become the origin of Empedocless poetic discourse
which is truthful because it observes real piety
,
—that is to say piety
towards the six principles. Therefore Empedocles seems to use
traditional words to express this notion of piety
καθαρ"!
,
etc.
),
( θεο$,
<σιο!
,
but he actually adapts their content to his own
philosophical thought.
3. In this context the role of the Muse is to convey to the poet the
,
poetic discourse which originates in the gods①
: lines 3
5 depict a
chariot that represents the poem according to a metaphor that is typical
of IndoEuropean culture②. The Muse conveys this chariotpoem from
Piety to the poet. She is characterised by three adjectives
λευκ;λενε and παρθ+νε
—πολυμν$στη,
—which connect her with the notions of love
① Fr. 3.3 5 κα, σ+ πολυμν$στη λευκ;λενε παρθ+ νε Μο5σα / )ντομαι Yν
θ+μι! #στ, ν #φημερ$ οισιν !κο&ειν / π+μπε παρ Ε,σεβ$η! #λ'ουσ ε,$νιον -ρμα.
And you muchwooed whitearmed virgin Muse I entreat you convey what is permitted
to oneday creatures to hear by driving from Piety the chariot obedient to the reins .
② Crafted objects serve in general as metaphors for poems in IndoEuropean texts.
Chantraine 2008 pp. 110 111 Bollack 1969 III p. 30 n. 4 Rousseaus preface to Pucci
1995 pp.17 18 Cerri 1999 p.97 n.133 RosenfeldLffler 2006 pp.36 38 etc.
:
,
,
,
,
(“
,
,
,
,
,
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,
:
,
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, ,
,
;
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Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
and desire. The meaning of these adjectives is a matter of contention if
:
we take πολυμν$στη in a passive sense
, it means that the Muse is
wooed by many poets; if we take it in an active sense, it means that the
Muse remembers much ①. This pair of alternatives entail an emphasis on
two different aspects of poetic composition rivalry between poets and
:
the role of memory in the process of composition. Light may be shed on
this problem if we consider that the three adjectives work as a system
the Muse is wooed by many poets because she is attractive
,
white arms is a typical feature of attractive women
poetry②
,
:
( having
in archaic
) . However, she is still a virgin ( παρθ+ νο! ), which means
that no poet was successful as a suitor. This system of three adjectives
places the Muse and therefore the whole process of poetic composition
,
,
under the patronage of Love③. The Muse here stands as a metaphor for
a poems compositional process and as a goddess characterized with
,
features that are significant in the context of Empedocless philosophical
thought. In an interesting fashion Strife does not seem to be mentioned
,
in these lines
—more on this later.
Therefore, Empedocless Muse belongs to the general power of
Love, although she is not simply identical with Love. The Muse
conveys the poetic discourse in a strictly vertical relationship between
the gods the poet and his audience. This audience is referred to with
,
#φημ+ριο!
,
,
a word that puts emphasis on the reelaboration by
Empedocles of the notion of mortality.
Empedocless own Muse
,
depicted in lines 3 8
,
is however
opposed to a devious Muse described in lines 6 8. Lines 6 8 are a
,
① In favor of “ much wooed:” Bignone 1916 , p.392 ; Gallavotti 1975 , p.9. In favor of
“ much remembering:” Bollack 1969, III, pp.28 29, Wright 1995, p.157. Diels, as early as
1903 , proposed “ much remembered,” which was followed by Gemelli Marciano 1990 ,
pp.57 60.
② For Hera: Il. 1 , 55 , 195 , 208 , 595 , etc. ; for Helen : Il. 3.121 ; for Andromache: Il.
6.371 ; in Pindar, for Thyone ( P.3.98 99 ) .
③ RosenfeldLffler ( 2006 , pp.49 52 ) saw that the text was proposing this connection ,
but she conflated the Muse with Love, which goes too far and lacks textual basis.
182
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
matter of contention for several reasons. 1. The subject of βι$σεται
,
( l. 6) is not explicit, and the construal of this verb is unclear . 2. The
referent of σε ( l.6 ) is a matter of contention, and it is unclear whether
①
the lines are addressed to the Muse or to Pausanias②. Lines 3 5 are
explicitly addressed to the Muse
,
and lines 9 13 can hardly be
addressed to a goddess since they deal with sense perception ③ as no
:
change of addressee takes place in the text that is generally edited in
line 9 nor in line 6
,
, the question is whether these lines are already
addressed to Pausanias or if the addressee is still the Muse.
The most satisfactory and the easiest construal is to consider that
,
,
the subject of βι$σεται ( that we interpret as an aorist subjunctive with
a short thematic vowel ) is the chariot ( -ρμα —namely, the poem in
progress), that is the last word of the preceding line. Although this is
the most economical option from a grammatical and syntactic point of
view it has never been proposed. As to the addressee of these lines
,
,
his identity was concealed by a correction to line 9 proposed by Bergk
in 1839 ④. He corrected the text of the manuscripts !λλ% γ%ρ )θρει
,
π$! παλ'μZ into !λλ )γ )θρει π'σ( παλ'μ( .
,
Bergks
main
argument was that according to the text of the manuscripts the addressee
is everyone π$! in the masculine . This was in his view impossible
( ,
)
,
since Empedocless addressee is Pausanias. Bergks correction was
① The two main options are to consider it as an aorist subjunctive with a short thematic
vowel construed with μη to express a prohibition or as a future indicative construed with μ$
Bollack 1969 III pp.31 32 . Elsewhere I provided arguments against the second option.
② In favor of the Muse Bollack 1969 III p. 31 Trépanier 2004 p. 61. In favor of
Pausanias Wright 1995 p.161 Inwood 2001 216 Mansfeld and Primavesi 2011 p.442.
③ Fr. 3.9 13 !λλ% γ%ρ )θρει π$! παλ'μ( π6 δ%λον -καστον / μ$τε τιν Pψιν
!χων π$ στει πλ+ ον 3 κατ !κου$ν / 3 !κο*ν # ρ$ δουπον "π+ρ τραν;ματα γλ;σση! /
μ$τε τι τ%ν )λλων #π"σ( π"ρο! #στ, νο%σαι / γυ$ ων π$ στιν !ρυκε ν"ει θ [ δ%λον
But as a matter of fact consider yourself as a whole by your palm by which
-καστον.
way each thing becomes evident without accepting in your trust a visual perception rather than
what you perceive according to the hearing or resounding hearing over what the tongue makes
clear or do not keep off your trust from any other limb by which there is a way to know and
know by which way each thing becomes evident.
④ Bergk 1839 1886 p.28.
,
(
, ,
:
,
)
:
;
,
:
,
(“ ,
,
;
, , ;
, ;
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
”)
[
]
,
,
183
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
accepted by all later editors①. But Pausanias is actually the addressee of
: the narrator entreats Pausanias to
consider himself as a whole ( π$! is in apposition ) how the objects of
sense perception reach us; π$!, as a masculine, provides us with the
line 9 even if we maintain π$!
word on which the change of addressee rests. Therefore we have no
reason anymore to believe that lines 6 8 should be addressed to
someone else than the Muse
change of addressee.
, since these lines provides no explicit
Lines 6 8 then mean that the poem must not compel the Muse to
pick the flowers that the mortals offer②. This enigmatic expression is
made clearer if we consider that the Muse not only is a goddess but also
functions as a metaphor for the process of composing a poem. The
sentence then means that
, according to Empedocles, the process of
composing a poem may present an occasion to modify the message that
was provided by the gods and conveyed by the Muse in order that the
,
message corresponds to the audiences expectations. The point is that
these expectations are presented in line 7 in a tension with the necessity
of piety that Empedocles defined in lines 1 5 they lead the Muse to
:
say more than what is pious.
” On the contrary, the poem will reach
the summit of wisdom ( l. 8 ), if the Muse stays in the limit of piety—
that is, if she does not yield to the temptation to modify the message
“
that she received from the gods in order to obtain the favor of the
audience a temptation which is presented as inherent to the process of
(
composition .
)
Who then is the target of Empedocles in these lines There are two
?
possible complementary answers.
,
,
See Víteks apparatus 2006 307 ad loc. .
Fr. 3.6 8 μηδ+ σ+ γ ε,δ"ξοιο βι$σεται )νθεα τιμ%! / πρò! θνητ%ν !νελ+σθαι
But do
#φ J θ #σ$η! πλ+ον ε)πε* ν / θ'ρσε. κα, τ"τε δ* σοφ$η! #π )κροισι θο'ζειν.
not let it -ρμα compell you to pluck the flowers of glorious honor from mortals for the price
of which one says more than piety recklessly and at this moment yes piety sits on the
summits of wisdom.
①
(
②
, ,
)
:
,
(“
(
)
,
,
”)
—
, ,
184
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
1. The first one lies in the phrase
“ to say more than piety.” Here
the poetic discourse is said to be wrong when it adds unnecessary
determinations to the depiction of the divine. This phrasing shows that
what Empedocles is here implicitly proposing is to purify the
representation of gods from the erroneous determinations that the other
poets added to the depiction of their truer simpler nature. Empedocles
,
is here reactivating Xenophaness reproaches towards Homers and
Hesiods accounts of the gods①
, but on other epistemological bases.
Empedocles analyzes the reasons why the other poets represented the
gods in an anthropomorphic fashion
: the other poets represented the
gods with anthropomorphic features to obtain success in poetic
competition by representing the divine in the image of human beings
whom they wished to obtain success from.
,
2. The second element of answer lies in the fact that Empedocles
uses in lines 3 8 a number of terms borrowed from epinician poetry
such as εKδοξον
,
(“ glorious”) or )νθεα ( for the price one wins), or
epic terms which were the object of Pindars poetic reflection ( such as
στ\μα , -ρμα , #φημ+ριο!) . Furthermore, our passage displays a set
of close connections to Bacchylidess 5 victory ode; after the myth of
Meleager , Bacchylides asks Calliope to stop a wellconstructed chariot,
②
th
whereas Empedocles asks his Muse to convey a horsedrawn chariot that
is obedient to the reins③. On the basis of these reflections of epinician
poetry in Empedocles
,
we can interpret the relationship between
epinician poetics and Empedocless poetics④. In a nutshell in Pindar
,
,
the most fundamental poetic relationship is triangular the divinity is the
:
Xenophanes fr. 11 DK.
For #φημ+ριο! see Pi. N.6.6 Bacch. Ep.3.76. For the flowers see the first triad of
the Olympian 9. For εKδοξο! Pi. O.1.70 14.23 P. 6.16 17 12.5 N.7.8 Is.2.34 3 / 4.1
8.1 fr.incert. 172.6 215b.8 fr.dith. 70b.30 Bacch. Ep.7.9 9.21 14.22 16.1 2.
Whitearmed Calliope stop your wellconstructed
③ Bacch. Ep. 5 pp. 176 178
chariot here.
④ I develop this aspect further in a paper to be published in Pallas in 2018 Gheerbrant
2018c .
①
②
,
;
,
,
;
,
,
, ;
;
:“
,
, ;
, ,
,
;
,
,
”
(
)
,
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
source of the athletic victory which is then celebrated by the poet in a
,
victory ode itself inspired by the gods and composed due to an order
from a patron. In Pindar the -ρμα metaphor refers to the course of the
poemchariot
, from
the beginning of the poem to its end①
;
it is
connected to the course of the winner on his chariot. In the context of
this poetic the statements that are not appropriate to the nature of the
,
gods not to speak of those that insult them② are excluded from the
,
epinician discourse
,
:
they insult the gods as the source of poetic
composition and of athletic prowess at the same time.
What does not fit Empedocless views in this is that the poet has to
adapt his discourse to a circumstance in which the gods favored a third
party
( here,
the athlete . The depiction of the gods is therefore
)
dependent on criteria that are external from the strict verticality between
gods
, poet, and
audience. The problem is that Pindars triangular
poetics involving the gods the athlete and the poet lead him to make
,
, and that these
statements are based on criteria that belong to the poetics of the epinicy ,
prescriptive statements about the nature of the gods
and not to features of the divine beings themselves. The poet adds
qualifications to the divine nature because of his specific poetics.
,
Thus Empedocles targets at the same time the epinician poets and
the work they did on the expresson of epic poetry he did not choose to
;
discuss Homer or Hesiod directly but to do so in the framework of a
,
discussion of Pindars work on the myths in the context of his own
epinician poetics. Empedocles therefore proposes an explanation of the
—is
mistaken: instead of observing a strict verticality between the gods, the
poet and his audience, the Muses of the other poets adapted the
message to the contexts in which it is communicated. Empedocles,
reasons why the past poetic tradition
—both
See for instance P. 10.54 56.
See the qualification of the gods as gluttonous
Herakles O.9.35 39 .
①
②
(
)
epic and epinician
( O. 1. 51 ) and the narratives about
185
186
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
however
,
composition
proposes
another
model
of
poetic
inspiration
and
, which is tightly connected with his cosmological and
biological model: by this process he justifies the truthfulness of his own
views and explains at the same time why the past tradition is mistaken
in their views on the divine and hence according to Empedocles
,
the world.
(
), on
Poetry and senseperception
Let us now come back to the question of sense perception and of
its role in Empedocless poetics. The question that arises is to determine
what exactly is the relationship between the cosmological thought
,
expressed in the poem and transmitted by the Muse and the perceptible
,
world. Why should we attempt to find truth in sense perception if truth
is ultimately revealed by a goddess
?
The solution to this paradox is expressed in fragment 4
, where
Empedocles analyzes the relationship between the poetic discourse and
the persuasive force that is inherent to reality ①. The three preserved
lines of fragment 4 are based on an opposition between
hand the κακο$
, on the one
, who refuse to trust what dominates, or what rules
( κρατ+ουσιν, which I analyze as a neuter plural), and, on the other
hand, Pausanias ( the implicit subject of the imperative γν%θι ) . The
noun π$στωμα refers to the proofs, or guarantees, that the Muse
,
provided. Aeschylus uses this word to refer to what seals a pact between
two parties②. Along the same lines Empedocless poem is the tangible
,
sign that the pact contracted between the Muse and the poet is
/ !! δ+ παρ
① Fr. 4 ,λλ% κακο * ! μ+ν κ'ρτα π + λει κρατ + ουσιν ! πιστε * ν
&μετ+ρη! κ+λεται πιστ;ματα Μο&ση! / γν%θι διασσηθ+ντο! #ν, σπλ'γχνοισι λ"γοιο.
But vile men surely refuse to trust what dominates but as the guarantees received from our
Muse urge know whereas the discourse has been divided into your entrails.
② Aesch. Ag.877 878 Ch.976 977 Eu.213 214 Pe.170 171.
:
·
,
(“
;
,
,
”)
;
;
;
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
observed in the terms which were defined in fragment 3. The verb of
,
action κ+λεται means that the knowledge transmitted by the poem
urges that is to say it has an inherent persuasive force that convinces
,
the audience. The fragment is therefore based on a parallelism between
two levels that of the persuasive force that is inherent to reality
:
( τ%
κρατ+οντα refers to the principles which determine and explain
reality
); and that of the representation of this force into the poem, as
guarantees given by the Muse which provoke persuasion in the audience
( τ% πιστ;ματα) .
The
absolute
genitive
#ν, σπλ'γχνοισι λ"γοιo
that
ends
line
3
( διατμηθ+ντο!
expresses the reason why the κακο$
)
encounter difficulties in knowing and in accepting the persuasive force
of reality. The phrase has been interpreted in various ways depending
on whether we consider the entrails
( σπλ'γχνα )
,
to be those of
( then the emphasis is on study and understanding of
knowledge), or those of the λ"γο! ( which means that understanding
Pausanias
the poetic discourse is only possible if the audience engages in its in
depth analysis
)
①.
A slightly different view is offered by the other
: τ+μνω refers to the
power of Strife in fr. 20 ( κακ6σι διατμηθ+ντ ]ρ$ δεσσι, l. 4 5 ) . If
occurrence of τ+μνω in the poem On nature②
we accept that a network of signification was associated with τ+μνω in
the poem the absolute genitive of fragment 4 means that it is difficult
,
for men to accept the persuasive force of reality because Strife divided
their λ"γο! within them
—that is, their faculties of understanding. It
then makes sense to mention the entrails rather than the heart or the
prapides to stress that division descends to the deepest parts of the
,
① For the λ"γο! Bignone 1916 p. 393. For Pausanias Sturz
1969 III pp. 44 45 Wright 1995 p. 164. The generally accepted
understanding the poem is only possible if the audience divide it into
2004 p.228 Mansfeld and Primavesi 2011 pp.444 445 .
② There is a third occurrence in fr. 143 which Diels and
Purifications. On this fragment see Picot 2004.
:
, ,
, ;
;
,
:
,
,
)
,
1805 p. 639 Bollack
view is nowadays that
his entrails Trépanier
,
,
(
Kranz located in the
187
188
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
individual.
Therefore the interpretation I propose is that the persuasive force
that is inherent to reality is not sufficient to convince men of the
existence of the six principles
, and of their role in the cosmology,
because Strife divided mens faculties of understanding. It is therefore
necessary for men to combine the observation of reality and the listening
of the poem in order to reach knowledge.
,
This interpretation allows in turn a better understanding of the
relationship that other passages build between the observation of reality
and the understanding of the poem①. In several places
, Empedocles
calls on the testimony of sense perception to strengthen his poetic
account. He describes the persuasive force of his account with words
that belong to the family of πε$ θω π$ στωμα in fr. 4 or π$ στι! in fr.
:
,
71. In fragment 21 the same consideration is expressed by the noun
,
μ"ρφη . In fragments 21 and 71 the poet examines the possibility that
,
the persuasive force lacks strength or more literally that it lacks matter
( an
,
idea which he expresses with the neologism λιπ"ξυλο! .
)
Fragments 21 and 23 provide a simile that expands on the roles of the
; after the simile,
Empedocles calls no more on observation of reality, as at the beginning
of fr. 21 , but rather on knowledge of the origin of living beings, from
the Muse . From fr. 21 to fr. 23 , Empedocles therefore depicts a
conversion from perception to knowledge, and suggests that acknowledging
six principles in the composition of living beings
②
the role of the six principles is the most effective way to account for the
phenomenal world.
Fragments 21.1 2 71 P.Strasb. a ii .21 30.
I disagree with Palmers 2013 309 view that παρ% θεο5 means that the Muse is
speaking in the first person in this fragment. I agree with the dominant view that Empedocles is
speaking and that θεο5 refers to the Muse as the origin of his poetic speech. For the view that
the god in question is Empedocles see Gemelli Marciano 2011 p.329.
①
, ,
②
(
()
, )
,
,
,
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
Poetry beyond sense perception
The strategy of the philosopherpoet changes when his discourse
bears on what escapes sense perception
, such as the divinity that is
described in fragments 133 and 134. Fragment 131 thus presents a
transition between a part of the poem that deals with the concerns of
men 131.1 2
(
), and another that deals with blessed gods
①.
The position of this fragment in the general organization of the
poem was a matter of contention. It partly depends on how many poems
Empedocles composed. The dominant view is that the fragment belongs
to the Purifications and introduces the description of a divinity that man
( see fr. 133 134 ) . However, the
fragment could also be a part of the proem, within the singlepoem
hypothesis , or introduce the part of this poem that deals with the
cannot access by sense perception
②
③
④
divine⑤. This fragment was also considered to be the very beginning of
the poem On nature
poets
)
⑥.
( in which case the first two lines refer to other
What is strictly necessary to the present interpretation is that
fragment 131 introduces a depiction of divinities which are not
accessible to sense perception whether it is the divinities of fragments
133 134 or the Sphairos.
,
If we accept that Empedocles announces in lines 131.3 4 that he is
① Fr. 131 : ε) γ%ρ #φημερ$ ων -νεκ+ν τινο!, )μβροτε Μο5σα , / &μετ+ρα! μελ+τα!
〈 μ+λε τοι〉 δι% φροντ$ δο! #λθε* ν / ε,χομ+νων, ν5ν α>τε παρ$ στασο, Καλλι"πεια, /
!μφ, θε%ν μακ'ρων !γαθòν λ"γον #μφα$ νοντι (“ For if, for the favor of one of the one
day creatures, immortal Muse, you cared that our preoccupations pass through your thought
when they were praying you, now again, Calliopeia, assist one who brings to light a good
discourse on the gods”) .
② Diels and Kranz 1952 , pp.364 366 ; Bollack 2003 , pp.91 96.
③ A proem ( προο$μιον) is the introductory part of a poem, which generally contains an
address to the Muse.
④ Wright 1995 , p.94 ; Inwood 2001 , p.214.
⑤ Mansfeld and Primavesi 2011 , p.560 ; Gemelli Marciano 2011 , p.282.
⑥ Gallavotti 1975 , pp.161 163.
189
190
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
going to move on to the depiction of divinities that are not accessible to
sense perception the device at stake is very different from the case of
,
, the narrator states his presence in the text
very clearly by use of the first person , and by commenting on what he
is going to present, in a fashion typical of didactic poetry . This is
especially typical of fragments which refer to sense perception , such as
fragments 21 , 71 , and the end of ensemble a on the Strasbourg Papyrus.
In lines 3 4 of fragment 131 , on the contrary, the narrators persona
sense perception. Usually
①
disappears to let the Muse speak.
However this disappearance of the first person singular in lines 3
,
4 was concealed by a correction by Schneidewin which all later editors
,
accepted②.
Schneidewin corrected the genitive plural ε,χομ+νων into a dative
singular ε,χομ+ν&. He constructed ε,χομ+ν& as an apposition to an
,
( referring
implicit μοι
to the narrator . The consequence of this
)
correction was to strenghthen the affirmation of the persona of the poet
in lines 3 4 by adding a second participle. However Schneidewins
,
,
correction is grammatically impossible because ε,χομ+ν& is followed
,
by the phrase ν5ν α>τε. Now ν5ν α>τε always appear in the first
,
position in a clause never in the second position
( like γ'ρ or δ+) .
This causes a critical impediment to Schneidewins correction , since he
③
,
proposes that a participle that precedes ν5ν α>τε syntactically agrees
with a word that is implicit in the clause that follows ν5ν α>τε. And
there is no good candidate for agreeing with ε,χομ+ν& in the first two
lines. We therefore have to accept the text of the manuscripts ε,χομ+νων
so that this participle agrees with #φημερ$ ων
,
,
: mortals addressed a
prayer to the Muse in order that she produce a poem about their
See for instance Hesiod Op. 10 27 29 106 108 etc.
Schneidewin 1851 p.167.
③ Homer Il. 1 237 3 67 and 241 4.321 etc. Od. 9 452 11 485 19 549
etc. Hymn to Demeter 123 Xenophanes fr. 7.1 DK Pindar Is.6.5 etc.
①
,
②
,
;
,
, ; ,
;
,
,
;
,
, ; , ; , ; , ,
; , ;
191
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
concerns①. As a consequence the imperative παρ$στασο
,
(“ assist ”)
in line 3 has no other explicit complement than the participle
#μφα$νοντι in line 4 there is no explicit pronoun that refers to the
,
:
poet and there is no need to assume that there is one implicitly. The line
,
means
:“ assist one who brings to light a good discourse on the gods.”
The phrasing has two specificities.
1. In earlier Greek poetry the Muse is never subject of a form of
παρ$ στημι in the
,
imperative②.
2. When the request for assistance expressed by a form of
παρ$ στημι is developed by a participle in the dative as an apposition
,
( as is the case here), a substantive in the dative always complements
the verb and serves as a grammatical antecedent for the participle in the
dative. In some cases
σοι etc.
, )
③.
,
this is merely a personal pronoun
( μοι,
The phrasing of lines 3 4 is therefore constructed in such a fashion
that the grammatical peculiarity draws the attention of the audience to
the disappearance of the persona of the narrator. This persona should
have been expressed by a substantive according to grammar and this is
,
all the more remarkable since the narrator affirms his presence very
strongly and repeatedly elsewhere ④. This absence of the narrator and the
general reach of the phrase
(“ ... assist one who brings to light ... ”)
can be accounted for by the fact that Empedocles is now focusing on a
subject that escapes sense perception. The poet lets the Muse speak when
it is not possible to find confirmation of his discourse in the world.
For a parallel see Simonides fr. 11.21 22 West.
The first other occurrence of the Muse being the subject of παρ $ στημι is Pindar
O.3.4. In the proem of the catalogue of ships Il. 2 485
there is however a form of
to be present.
παρειμ$
③ I checked all the occurrences of παρ$ στημι before Empedocles the verb appears
primarily in Homer Hesiod the Hymns Alcaeus archaic elegy Aeschylus Pindar
Bacchylides and Herodotus.
④ Fr. 2.8 9 3 4 8.1 9.5 11 17.1 14 16 26 21.1 23.9 11 71 112 114
etc.
①
,
②
,
(
,“
,
),
”
—
,
,
,
,
; ; ; ; ; ; ,
,
, ;
,
;
,
,
; ; ; ,
192
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
Empedocles engages in reforming poetic discourse and its origin
,
,
on bases that are consistent with his own cosmological and biological
thought and with his own theory of perception. He thus defines a strict
,
vertical relationship between the gods
, his own Muse, himself as a
poet and his audience. He bases this relationship on a piety towards the
,
principles of his system in this way he explains the reasons why the
;
,
past poetic tradition is wrong by opposing his own Muse to a devious
Muse
,
—who is virtually that of the earlier tradition. The expression of
his cosmological and biological theses entails a collaboration between
sense perception and the knowledge received from the Muse and
expressed in the poem. They are two aspects of the same persuasive
force one is inherent to reality the other to Empedocless poem but
:
,
,
both prove the role of the elements in the cosmology biology and so
,
,
on. In such contexts the narrator strongly affirms his presence in the
,
text when he refers to or comments on the very act of enunciation
,
,
,
( Δ$πλ # ρ+ ω, fr. 17. 1, is a prominent example ) . On the contrary,
when Empedocless poetic discourse deals with subjects that escape sense
perception the narrators persona disappears to let the Muse speak.
,
,
Thus Empedocles intertwines a reform of the conditions under
which poetic discourse can lay claim to truthfulness
, with his new
conception of the Muse and of the divine and his original elaboration
,
on the nature of living beings and of the world. The features of poetic
discourse that Empedocles defines at a theoretical level thus draw an
essential connection between poetry and the philosophical thought that is
expressed in his poem.
How poetic
composition
Empedocless purpose
techniques
are
adapted
to
Empedocless theoretical work on the relationship between poetry
193
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
and philosophy has concrete effects on the different levels of his poetic
practice.
This is evident from his use of hexameter itself. The comparison
between Empedocless practice with those of Parmenides and
Panyassis① on the one hand and with those of Homer and Hesiod on
,
the other shows that hexameter is not a constraint of expression that
,
Empedocles would merely endure. Rather he uses dactylic hexameter
,
as a poetic and semantic tool to elaborate his own thought and its
original features. Prosody and meter enable him to put stress on some
words
, notions,
or passages
,
and to emphasize how different his
thought is from the earlier epic tradition. For instance
, Empedocless
work on the notion of human existence is stressed by a play on the
prosody of the word θνητ "!
, θν is syllablereleasing six times and syllable
. Now, three points are worth noting: ( 1 ) It is very
instances of θνητ "!
closing only once②
(“ mortal ”) . Out of the seven relevant
rare in epic poetry that a sequence of consonants that are occlusive and
; ( 2 ) Empedocles himself treats no other
such sequence as syllablereleasing. ( 3 ) Almost all epic poets use
nasal is syllablereleasing③
th
① Panyassis is an epic poet of the first half of the 5 century who composed an
Heracleid.
Syllablereleasing means that all consonants in the sequence are pronounced with
②
the next vowel therefore the preceding syllable keeps its natural quantity e.g. , |φροδ$ τη
where the alpha retains its natural quantity that is short
syllableclosing means that a
consonant in the sequence is pronounced as ending the preceding syllable whereas the other is
pronounced as opening the following syllable therefore the syllable is lenghthened by position
e.g. ,φ |ροδ$ τη where the short alpha is made long by position since the syllable ends by a
consonant . By this device the poet could include words or sequences of words that would not
normally fit the line such as the name of Aphrodite which needs to be scanned , |φροδ$ τη
uu to be included in a dactylic hexameter or make the position of words in the line more
flexible. By relevant cases I mean when θν is preceded by a word ending with a vowel in
other cases we cannot tell whether the word is syllablereleasing or syllableclosing. In
Empedocles the sequence is syllableclosing in 17.3 and syllablereleasing in 35.7 14 16
71.3 112.4 115.7.
③ West 1982 p. 16 Gentili and Lomiento 2003 p. 21. In Homer and Hesiod attic
abbreviation normally happens only to allow a given word in the dactylic hexameter for
example the name of Aphrodite as presented above .
“
”
;
,
,
;
(
,
,
,
,
,
)
,
(
,
,
;
( :
”
); “
,
)
“
,
,
;
”
;
,
,
;
,
,
)
, , ;
,
(
194
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
θνητ"! so that θν is syllableclosing①
,
apart from Choerilus of
Samos for whom it is syllablereleasing②. Only late authors such as
,
,
, admit both uses of
θν ( outside from θνητ"!) . Where θνητ"! is concerned, Empedocless
Quintus of Smyrna or the Argonautica
Orphica ③
prosody is thus quite noteworthy. What matters is not that θν is
syllablereleasing or syllableclosing in itself but the variation from the
,
traditional usage prosody is used to underscore the poets work on the
:
concept of mortality.
Empedocles reforms the epic practice of similes within the
framework of his own epistemology. He grants equal importance to
( for instance, when some parts of the tenor
have no equivalent in the vehicle, or viceversa ) . Let us take the
analogy and disanalogies
example of fr. 21 and 23. Fragment 21 provides no detailed account of
the exact process by which the four elements are mixed by Love and
; after the depiction of the powers of the two
principles ( 21. 7 8 ), the text provides us with a catalogue of living
beings ( 21.9 12 ) . On the contrary, we find in fragment 23 a detailed
separated by Strife
explanation of the way the painters mix the powders in different
quantities
, but
the identity of the two painters
,
if there are two
painters is unclear and a matter of contention④. Hence the traditional
,
problem of determining whether Strife takes part in the process of
① For instance Hom. Il. 1. 339 and 574 12.242 14.199 etc. Hes. Th. 223 500
592 etc. Panyassis fr. 14.1 Bernabé etc.
② Choerilus fr. 335. 1 LloydJonesParson is the only occurrence of θνητ"! in his
fragments. This fragment was not included in Bernabés edition.
③ Quintus Posthom. 1.89 and 93 Arg.Orph. 430 and 731.
με$ ξαντε
④ The three main options to interpret the three duals δεδα%τε 23. 2
23.4 and κτ$ ζοντε 23.6 are they are stylistical Bollack 1969 III p.122 Wright 1995
they refer to the two hands of Aphrodite Iribarren 2013 98
pp.38 39 and pp. 179 180
ss.
there are actually two painters Trépanier 2003 34 ss. Sedley 2006 59 . In the latter
case the question is what is their reference in the context of the tenor Trépanier loc. cit.
argued that Strife was to be given a generative role just as Love so there would be a zoogony
under Strife
Sedley understands that the point is that both zoogonies happen in our world
loc. cit. .
:
,
, ;
,
,
,
( )
);
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
( ),
;
(
, )
,
;
( ) :
);
(
,
(
;
;
,
);
(
, ;
;
)
(
,
(
)
195
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
unification by mixture and how exactly ①. Comparing the structure of
,
: in fragment 23, two
painters do a series of actions, whereas in fragment 21 , each of the two
the two catalogues sheds light on this issue
powers performs one type of action. Those disanalogies require an
interpretation as stressed in the text itself fragment 23 mentions that
,
:
living beings resemble their representation ②. This is a hint at the fact
that the meaning of the two fragments should be sought by the
comparison of their similarities and of their differences. My proposal is
that the participle in the dual κτ$ζοντε l. 23.6 synthetically expresses
(
)
the two opposite powers of Love and Strife which where elaborated in
(
lines 21. 7 8
, in the tenor ) . The apparent absence of Strife in the
painters analogy raises interpretative issues; but using the notion of dis
analogy helps us make clear that its role is in fact to separate the
elements so that Love can then mix them. This point is made in l. 21.7
,
where δι'μορφα and )νδιχα express the two sides of Strifes power to
:
divide an object that used to be one and to separate one thing from the
other③.
,
In sum
, the duality that characterizes the action of the two
powers in fragment 21 ( mixing and separating ) is relocated on the
agent in fragment 23 ( the two painters) .
Thus the study of the disanalogies within the analogy sheds light
on the elaboration of the philosophical thought. This is especially true as
Empedocles usually introduces a very tight symmetry between tenor and
vehicle④. Two processes are at work at the same time an explanation
by similitude and an explanation by dissemblance.
:
① For this problem of a zoogony under Strife the dominant view has long been that of
OBrien 1965 189 ss.
for the absence of zoogony under Strife see Bollack 1965 108 ss.
from them they sc. the
② Fr. 23.5 #κ τ%ν εC δεα π$σιν !λ$ γκια πορσ&νουσι
painters compose forms resembling every item .
③ Μορφ$ refers to the shape as a harmonious whole Strife divides a consistent object.
Elsewhere Empedocles generally uses δ$χα to describe how Strife separates the elements from
each other. .νδιχα generally expresses a division into parts whereas δι'μορφα emphasises the
division of a consistent whole.
④ See for instance the other two prominent similes in fr. 84 and 100.
,
(
)
,
);
,
[“
:
”]
,
;
,
,
,
,
(
196
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
Empedocless catalogues also show the traces of a reform of the
traditional technique. He proposes to correct traditional theologies not
,
by criticizing them from the outside but by using the same forms in a
,
fashion he deems correct. This is quite clear in fragments 121 122 and
,
123 where Empedocles combines two processes naming new divinities
,
:
and reforming the organization of the catalogues. He abandons the
genealogical pattern as featured in Hesiods catalogues in the benefit of
,
other modes of structuring. For instance in fragments 122 and 123 a
,
,
set of meaningful oppositions progressively structures the catalogue by
successively opening several potentialities this was already in Hesiod
(
,
but it was given a less prominent role): topology, creation / destruction,
living beings and their characteristics, etc .
Fragment 121 is based on another technique : the catalogue
①
②
provides a framework for the interpretation of the relationship between
( murder,
, at the beginning of the
catalogue), and the emergence of illnesses, woes and other scourges.
human behaviors
rancor
,
etc.
The structure puts emphasis on the idea that the latter are the
consequences of the former.
The figures of repetitions
composition and
,
Ritornell③
such as ring composition
,
,
are also reworked by Empedocles
spiral
, and
① Fr. 122 !νθ )σαν Χθον$η τε κα, ^λι"πη τανα%πι! / Δ%ρ$ ! θ α= ματ"εσσα
κα, _ρμον$η θεμερ%πι! / Καλλιστ; τ Α) σχρ$ τε Θ"ωσ' τε Δηνα$η τε / Νημερτ$!
There were Earthly and farseeing Suneye bloody
τ #ρ"εσσα μελ'γκαρπ"! τ ,σ'φεια
Battle and noblebrow Harmony MostBeautiful and Ugly Swift and Slow lovely Infaillible
and blackfruit Obscurity . Fr. 123 Φυσ; τε Φθιμ+νη τε κα, Ε,να$η κα, `γερσι! /
Growth and Perishing Sleep and
Κιν; τ ,στεμφ$! τε πολυστ +φαν "! τε Μεγιστ ;
Awakeness Moving and Immobile and manycrowned Greatness . I consider l. 123.3 DK to
be a paraphrasis by Cornutus for a different view see Picot 2012.
② Fr. 121 ...!τερπ+α χ%ρον / !νθα Φ"νο! τε Κ"το! τε κα, )λλων !θνεα Κηρ%ν /
α,χμηρα$ τε Ν"σοι κα , Σ$ψιε! !ργα τε Nευστ' / .τη! !ν λειμ%να κατ% σκ"το!
... A joyless place where Slaughter Rancour and hordes of other violent
(λ'σκουσιν.
Deaths parching Diseases and Putrefactions and everything that flows roam in darkness
among the field of Atè .
③ As defined by Van Otterlo 1945 as a repetition based on nonlinear and noncircular
patterns. It allows the oral poet to structure his composition and his audience to structure their
listening.
:
,
,
,
,
(“
,
,
”)
,
,
(“
:
,
,
,
,
,
,
”)
;
,
:
,
(“
,
,
,
,
”)
(
)
,
,
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
given an argumentative force. The most important feature is not the
return of identical words or phrases but the variation that the poet
introduces within this repetition. This reveals the limited interpretative
power of the textualanalogical line of interpretation. Their proponents
focus too much on resemblance between instances of repeated lines and
,
hence lose sight of the role of variation in Empedocless progressive
construction of his philosophical thought.
Empedocles combines two epic techniques① Ritornell and episodic
:
composition. The notion of repetition is a bit of a simplification since
“
”
it is not a technical concept of poetic composition
,
, and because it
may lead us to focus on what is the same and to overlook the role
,
of variations. Empedocles makes use of this technique not only to
, or part of line, but to hint at the lines more
of a given section —which I would call , more
refer to a single line
general context
technically
,
a given episode. The variation that is introduced
between instances of repeated lines allows the audience to interpret
the relationship between these argumentative sections or episodes. In
addition to the external argumentative structure of the poem
( marked
, ο > ν, etc. ), variations within Ritornell
allow the poet to introduce an internal , or implicit , level of
argumentation. For instance , let us examine briefly the repetition of
by connectives like γ'ρ
the verseendings ε) ! Xν -παντα and ε) ! -να κ"σμον. Lines 267 268
( a( i) .6 7 ) of the poem On nature
②
are only partially readable but
,
the verseendings ε) ! -να κ"σμον and #ξ 4νò! εAναι are repeated from
two different passages of fr. 17
( l. 2 = On nature 234 and l. 7 = On
① I develop this point in an article to be published in 2018 in the Yearbook of Ancient
Greek Epic Gheerbrant 2018b .
② On nature lines 267 268 = ens. a I . 6 7 συνερχ" μεθ ε)! -να κ"σμον /
through Love we come together in one world
through
δ$ εφυ πλ+ ον # ξ 4νò! εA ναι
Strife it divided to be many from one .
(
]
]
)
()
]
,
([
”)
:
]
,[
197
198
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
nature 239
these
) ; the former will be repeated as line 5 of fragment 26 . In
instances of Ritornell, the verseendings and their contexts
①
②
undergo a series of variation. Lines 267 268 feature a hybrid
expression
, by combining two different episodes: the generation of
many from one at a cosmic level ( from l. 234 ) and the generation of
compound bodies ( l. 240 ) . This aims at showing that, in all these
cases, the power of unification ( and that of separation ) at stake is the
same: at a cosmic level, at that of the world, and at that of living
beings. It amounts to showing that the Sphere, the world and living
beings may all ( individually) be considered to form a unity, albeit on
different scales; the same process of unification, under different forms,
characterizes various levels of the cosmos. The notion of episode is
helpful in this context because it makes clear that what is repeated is not
only a word or an expression
former instance s took place.
, but the whole context in which the
()
The study of how Empedocles makes use of traditional composition
techniques of dactylic poetry shows that by composing a poem
,
, his
aim is not merely to compose a work that is different in form from
the earlier tradition of philosophical prose writing
( which is the sort
of thing that Pherecydes of Syros does when he chooses to write a
theogony in prose rather than in dactylic hexameter
), but rather to
correct the earlier dactylic poetic tradition from within. In its very use
of the composition techniques he corrects what could be perceived
within his own system
,
, as inadequacies.
,
Therefore Empedocless
① On nature 233 234 = 17.1 2 διπλ #ρ+ω. τοτ+ μ+ν γ%ρ Xν η,ξ$θη μ"νον εA ναι /
A twofold tale I shall tell at one
#κ πλε"νων τοτ+ δ α> δι+φυ πλ+ον #ξ 4νò! εAναι
time it grew to be one from many and at another it divided to be many from one . On
nature 239 240 = 17.7 8 )λλοτε μ+ν Φιλ"τητι συνερχ"μεν ε) ! Xν -παντα / )λλοτε δ
at one time all coming together through Love
α> δ$χ -καστα φορε&μενα Νε$ κεο! !χθει
at another again being borne away from each other by Strifes repulsion .
② Fr. 26.5 6 )λλοτε μ+ν Φιλ"τητι συνερχ"μεν ε) ! -να κ"σμον / )λλοτε δ α>
at one time coming together into one world
δ$χ -καστα φορε & μενα Νε $ κεο! !χθει
through Love at another again being borne away from each other by Strifes repulsion .
:
,
(“
,
:
”)
,
:
(“
,
”)
:
(“
,
”)
199
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
poetic composition can be understood as a reflective process of
distancing from and amendment of the epic and didactic tradition
,
,
:
he expresses a critique towards this tradition , and overcomes it ,
from within.
The addressees and the meaning given to his thought by
the poet
The study of the external and internal addressees of Empedocles
,
and that of the context of the poems performance sheds light on the
,
meaning of Empedocless project in the context of the Greek world of
the 5 th century. For the addressees
, the most prominent point of the
argument is that the names and characterizations of the internal
addressees Pausanias and the friends from Acragas are best accounted
(
)
for as signifying pieces of information within the poetic construction as
opposed to biographical data
)
(
①.
Let us first turn to Pausanias②. His name and genealogy are
mentioned in fragment 1 ③. His father is Anchitos whose name can be
,
interpreted as a hypocoristic based on )γχι and θε"!. His name thus
means he who is close to the gods
,” and we here find the same motif
as in fragment 3. Pausaniass own name is a meaningful one , because it
is composed of πα&ω, “ to make cease”, and of !ν$η , “ grief, sorrow,
distress. ” His name thus means “ he whose distress ceases” or “ he who
makes ( others) distress cease. ” What does that mean in the context
“
④
See Rousseaus 1996 interpretation of Perses in Hesiods Works and Days.
I developed this point further in a paper to be published in the volume on Hesiod and
the Presocratics by Iribarren and Koning.
Pausanias listen you
③ Fr. 1 Παυσαν$η σ' δ+ κλ5θι δαD φρονο! ,γχ$ του υ=+
son of the wise Anchitos .
④ This is probably one of the reasons why the ancient tradition interpreted Pausanias as a
physician.
①
(
②
:
,
”)
)
,
(“
,
, ,
200
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
of Empedocless thought
?
The substantive !ν$η refers to grief distress sorrow and trouble
as consequence of human
nature. ①
,
,
,
As early as the Odyssey the words
,
of the family of !ν$η express a disturbance of social ties and especially
of hospitality②. In later poetry
,
, !ν$η
and its cognates express the
distress that originates in the disruption of other social bonds such as
love friendship
,
, or familial relationships
③.
,
Empedocles reworks the
notion of !ν$η so that it reaches beyond the various forms of social ties
,
to express a distress constitutive of the human condition. As Empedocles
believes that birth and death are not the actual beginning and end of
life he therefore provides a strong answer to existential questions about
,
( and an answer that is essentially
different from the one epic and didactic tradition provides) . In fragment
107 , he associates the feelings of pleasure and joy (E δομαι ) with
Love, and that of distress (!νι'ομαι) with Strife. Thereby he connects
his theory of feelings with his cosmological views. In his worldview,
Strife divided mens faculties for understanding , and Strife is also the
the meaning of human existence
cause of mens feeling of distress. This distress will cease when
Pausanias understands the poem when he sees it for what it is.
,
Thus Pausanias represents a listener who reached full understanding
of Empedocless thought
, and who put it into practice to make his
existential distress cease. Empedocless thought in the poem On nature
should not be reduced to the explanation of the cosmic cycle or to that
of biological processes. The very names that Empedocles picked for
Love and Strife show that their action reaches beyond the cosmic sphere
to determine human actions as is made clear in fragment 17 lines 14
,
①
②
③
,
Chantraine 2008 p.91.
For instance in Od. 1.133 7.192 etc.
For instance Theognis 76 124 210 258 344 991 1337 1356.
,
,
,
, ,
, , , , , ,
,
201
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
26 On nature 245 257
(
)
①.
,
The whole passage is introduced by the
aorist imperative κλ5θι and is concluded by a present imperative
,
)κουε. As Philippe Rousseau argued in the case of Hesiods Works and
Days② κλ5θι is a marked form
,
!κο&ω)
③.
( as opposed to the unmarked form,
As a marked form κλ&ω entails that the narrator expects a
,
certain response from the addressee. For instance κλ& ω is always the
,
word used in prayers to the gods④ because a response is expected and
,
wished for—as opposed to !κο& ω, which means “ to listen ” without
presupposing a given response. In our passage , the difference in aspect
is also important: with the imperfective )κουε, the poet takes a stance
on the general truthfulness of his poem. On the contrary, with the aorist
κλ5θι, the narrator calls his addressees attention on the passage that
immediately follows.
Now
, the
following passage provides a catalogue of the six
principles. In epic and didactic poetry the most prominent item of a
,
catalogue usually comes last especially when a longer development is
,
① On nature 245 257 = fr. 17.14 26 !λλ )γε μ&θων κλ5θι μ'θη γ'ρ τοι φρ+να!
/ !! γ%ρ κα, πρ, ν !ειπα πιφα&σκων πε$ ρατα μ&θων / δ$ πλ #ρ+ω τοτ+ μ+ν
αKξει
γ%ρ Xν η,ξ$θη μ"νον εA ναι / #κ πλε"νων τοτ+ δ α> δι+φυ πλ+ον #ξ 4νò! εA ναι / π5ρ
κα, "δωρ κα , γα*α κα , ( + ρο! )πλετον "ψο! / Νε * κ " ! τ ο,λ " μενον δ$χα τ%ν
/ τ σ' ν"&
! τ'λαντον -π'ντ( / κα, Φιλ"τη! #ν το* σιν C ση μ%κ"! τε πλ'το! τε
δ+ρκευ μηδ μμασιν Fσο τεθηπ;! / Eτι! κα, θνητο* σι νομ$ ζεται !μφυτο! )ρθροι! /
τ6 τε φ$ λα φρον+ουσι κα, )ρθμια !ργα τελο5σι / Γηθοσ&νην καλ+οντε! #π;νυμον (δ
/ τ οK τι! μετ σοισιν 4 λισσομ+ νην δεδ ηκε / θνητò! !ν$ρ
,φροδ$ την
σ' δ
)κουε λ"γου στ"λον ο,κ !πατηλ"ν But come listen to my discourse for learning increases
your phrenes. For as I said before when I was stating the limits of my discourse a twofold tale
I shall tell at one time it grew to be one only from many and at another it divided to be many
from one fire water earth and measureless height of air Strife between them equal in every
direction and Love within them matched to them in length and in width. Contemplate her
with your mind and do not sit staring dazed. As being inborn in the joints of men she is
customarily used by mortals thanks to her they conceive thoughts of love and perform joining
works naming her by the names of Joyful and Aphrodite. No one perceives her as she whirling
in his eyes no mortal man. But you hear the trustworthy equipage of my discourse .
② Rousseau 1996 pp.103 104.
who borrows it
③ For the concept of marked / unmarked terms see Nagy 1990 5 8
from the Prague school of linguistics.
④ For instance Hom. Il. 1.37 42 451 456 5.115 120 10.284 294 16.514 526.
:
,
·
·
,
·
,
,
,
,
,
,
·
·
,
,
·
·
“
,
,
,
:
: ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
(
,
,
)
,
,
;
,
,
,
”)
,
,
,
,
;
( , ),
;
;
202
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
devoted to this last item①
251 7
( = fr. 17.20
—which in this case is Love. In On nature
26 ), the various aspects of the power of Love are
expressed within the framework of a ring composition. ② Love exerts her
power on the cosmic cycle
,
on animal biology
,
and on human
behaviors. The center of this ring composition features her role in mens
thoughts and actions which explains the denominations of Joyful and
,
Aphrodite with which men name Love. The meaning of the passage is
that in spite of her omnipresence human beings make use νομ$ ζεται
,
,
of Love without fully understanding her
nature③
(
)
; and in the poem On
nature Empedocles proposes to acknowledge and to account for all
aspects of the power of Love.
Therefore in a nutshell
, Pausanias is characterized as an ideal
listener to Empedocless poem, since he bears in his very name the
result of its full understanding: understanding the poem enables one to
,
appease the distress that rises from human condition.
The Purifications are addressed to a group of friends who dwell in
Acragas④. In fragment 112 the friends are characterized as hospitable
,
as devoid of evils and as acknowledging Empedocless godly
,
,
nature ⑤.
The beginning of fragment 112 raises two traditional issues that of the
:
① See for instance the catalogue of the Muses in which Calliope is named last with an
emphasis on her being the most important Th. 79 . See also Cronos in the catalogue of the
Titans Th. 137 138 .
② On ring composition see Rousseau 2011 and the bibliography he provides.
③ The interpretation of l. 17. 22 is a matter of contention the dominant view is that
νομ$ ζω is a verb of opinion and which means that human beings perceive the role of Love in
the generation of their bodies Wright 1995 167 Laks and Most 2016 V 412 . Bollack
convincingly argued that the verb here has its original meaning of to be customarily used
men used Love without understanding it
but he unnecessarily reduces that to sexuality
1969 III p.69 . But we should include all aspects of her power that the mortals can use
filial love piety etc.
④ They are mentioned in fr. 112 and 114.
⑤ Fr. 112.1 4a @ φ$ λοι οa μ+γα )στυ κατ% ξανθο5 ,κρ'γαντο! / να$ ετ !ν )κρα
π"λεο! !γαθ%ν μελεδ$μονε! !ργων / ξε$ νων α) δο* οι λιμ+νε! κακ"τητο! )πειροι /
Friends who dwell in the great city down the blond Acragas across the
χα$ρετ ε .
heights of the town careful for works of good merciful harbours for strangers ignorant of
evil hail
.
,
(
(
,
)
)
,
;
(
(
(
, ;
),
, , )
“
”
“ ”:
, , )
, ,
:
,
( ) (“
,
,
, !”)
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
203
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
situation of enunciation
,
, and that of the extension of the group of
friends. A biographical line of interpretation proposed that Empedocles
was addressing the poem as a missive to the people of Acragas①. There
is no need to assume that the addressees are a historical group of people.
More convincingly
, this address was analysed as a literary device
②.
Bollack proposes that Empedocles here sketches what a city that was
converted to his philosophical thought would look like as opposed to
,
the cities where he has not yet managed to communicate his message.
( The inhabitants of which are described in the rest of the fragment. )
③
The question of the extension of the community is important because
what is at stake is whether the poet addresses an elite or if his message
was meant to be of use to the Greek world in its entirety. I agree with
Bollacks arguments in favor of the latter ④
: in his use of the word
“ Acragas”, Empedocles makes clear that he proposes to understand it
as “ the summit of the earth. ” The statement that the friends live !ν
)κρα π"λεω! does not mean that the friends only live in the heights of
the city
( as if they were elites, as opposed to the rest of the
inhabitants), but that Acragas, which is built on a hill, becomes a
summit in itself as compared to the rest of the Greek world.
Our characterization of these friends and our reconstruction of the
poems context of performance reveal a tension
:
the friends from
Acragas are characterized in a fashion that is typical of sympotic poetry
( such as elegy), in which the addressees are a group who share values
and moral qualities with the speaker. Gregory Nagy interpreted the
① Diels for instance surmised that Empedocles was in exile in Southern Italy and was
attempting to flatter the people of Acragas so that they would call him back
1898 1969 pp.
125 130 . Tucker 1931 proposed that the fragment was an ironical and despising address to
the poets ennemies. Osborne considers that the poem was pronounced in Acragas but that this
address is ironical 1987 .
② Trépanier 2004 p.48 analyses how with this address Empedocles takes a stance in
the tradition of didactic poetry.
③ Bollack 2003 p.55.
④ Ibid. p.53.
([
)
( )
( )
( ,
,
,
)
]
,
204
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
addressees in Pindar as characterized by three main features
σοφο$
, !γαθο$
and φ$ λοι. Hence
:
①
they are
, Pindars poetry is an α A νο!,
because it conveys its real meaning to an audience who share those
characteristic features
, and a wrong message to the others. Now, in
Empedocles the friends from Acragas are presented as a community of
,
( such as hospitality ) and ideas ( they acknowledge that
Empedocles is a god ), as opposed to the rest of the Greek world .
shared values
②
Therefore this social and geographical characterization of Empedocless
addressees is opposed to epic poetrys universal or virtually universal
,
addressee. On the other hand
,
, we know that the Purifications were
recited at the Olympic games, most likely during the panegyry , by a
③
professional rhapsode named Cleomenes④. The Olympic games are the
Panhellenic hence universal occasion of performance par excellence⑤.
,
,
Now if we admit that Cleomenes was a professional rhapsode
,
,
that he recited the Purifications during the panegyry at the behest of
Empedocles
—none of these claims being selfevident—a strong sense of
tension arises between the social and geographical determination of the
addressee and the universal dimension of a performance connected with
the Olympic games. How should we explain it It does not mean that
?
Empedocles intended to address the poem to a group of happy fews as
opposed to the rest of the Greek world
, whom he would despisingly
consider not able to understand his intellectual message. On the
contrary this choice means that the community of friends in Acragas is
,
Nagy 1989 pp.10 11.
See fr. 112.5 12.
③ No ancient testimony allows us to believe that there were poetic competitions as part of
the Olympic Games before or after the reformation that took place in 468. The most convincing
option is that the recitation of the Purifications took place during the paneguris that is the
gathering of the Greeks prior to the actual beginning of the games. We have testimonies
according to which this assembly was an occasion for reciting various texts in poetry and prose
Diodorus of Sicily mentions recitations of poetry D. S. 14. 109
Lucian recitations of
Herodotus Herodotus I.23 .
④ Diogenes Laertius VIII.63 and Athenaeus Deipn. 14.12.21 Kaibel.
⑤ For limits to Nagys views of Panhellenism see Rousseau 1996 p.164.
①
,
②
,
(
:
:
);
,
, )
,
,
,
,
205
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
not presented by the poem as a precondition to its interpretation but as
,
a consequence of its understanding by the audience. The listener is
invited to become part of this group of friends if he agrees to develop
the qualities that they possess
: Empedocles invited the Greeks who
gathered at the panegyry to become a community like that of the friends
from Acragas.
We can go further and suggest that the Purifications can be
considered as the basis for the tradition of panegyric discourse in prose.
Indeed Gorgias Lysias and Isocrates later declaimed panegyrics in
,
,
,
prose in the festal assembly
,
( paneguris )
,
of the Olympic games.
Gorgias who was considered to be the disciple of Empedocles invites
,
,
the Greeks to concord on the basis of a struggle against the barbarians①.
This literary genre aims at creating a community and Empedocless
Purifications may have played a part in the constitution of this genre
although we do not possess enough evidence to prove it decisively.
In any case
,
, the intended aims of the two poems, as we can
reconstruct them on the basis of the study of their addressees and of the
performance context of the Purifications reaches beyond the boundaries
,
of the sort of philosophical reflection that is usually associated with the
Presocratics. We can find traces of philosophical reflections on politics
and ethics in Empedocles although they have little in common with
,
those of Socrates in terms of form and nature.
,
Strife and poetic composition
The role of Strife is never mentioned in the surviving fragments
① Gorgias fr. 7 8 and 9 DK his panegyric discourse was composed in 402 or 398
Lysias composed his discourse of which we possess nine fragment in 388 or 384 in favor of
concord against the tyranny of Dionysius I of Syracuse
the accepted date of Isocratess
panegyric is 380 and it is considered not to have been delivered orally.
,
,,
(
);
,
,
);
,
(
206
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
that bear on poetic composition. On the contrary Empedocless Muse is
,
characterized as dependent on the power of Love. This absence of Strife
may simply mean that Empedocles did not believe that Strife could or
should play a part in poetic composition. However there is no apparent
,
incompatibility between poetic composition and Strifes power
—to the
contrary. Strifes power is technically necessary to separate one syllable
from each other a given part of the poem from another. In a more
,
abstract fashion , we may very well believe that Empedocless analysis
of the poetic tradition and of its features is ultimately dependent on the
power of Strife whereas the fashioning of the poem as a consistent
,
,
whole, is dependent on the power of Love. Besides, composing or
performing poetry is not possible when everything is united in the
Sphere hence Strifes role must be necessary in a concrete way for the
;
,
poem to be composed
acknowledged its role.
—although Empedocles does not seem to have
As a consequence
,
the apparent absence of Strife from the
fragments that deal with poetry could very well be an expressive gap
deliberately left open in the text. This idea may be argued for on the
basis of the end of fragment 115
—which is the only fragment of the
Purifications that presents the reasons and circumstances of the
banishment of the daimones. First the narrator presents the divine law
,
that was broken by the guilty gods, and their exile ( 115.1 12 ); in this
section he does not speak in the first person and describes the law and
the crime in very general terms. Then
, in lines 13 4, the narrator
speaks in the first person to analyze his present situation as that of a
guilty daimon who was banished because he had put his trust in Strife ①.
Now the words the narrator uses in l. 13 4 are marked in the rest
,
of the corpus
:
① Fragment 115.13 14 τ%ν κα, #γ2 ν5ν ε) μι φυγ%! θε"θεν κα, !λ$τη! / νε$ κε.
Among them I too am now an exile from the gods and a wanderer
μαινομ+ν& π$ συνο!
because I placed my trust in raging Strife .
:
,
(“
,
”)
,
,
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
,
— Madness ( μαινομ+ν&) is here a feature of Strife. In fragment
3 Empedocles used the substantive μαν$η to refer to the madness of a
,
vague τ%ν
,
which is generally taken to refer to other poets or
philosophers①.
There is no other occurrence of any word based on
μαν$η in the fragments.
— The motive of the trust we put in someone is expressed by the
adjective π$ συνο!, which is derivated from πε$ θω via πιστ"! . In the
poem On nature, this lexical field refers to the power of persuasion of
poetic discourse, as we saw earlier, especially when the poet reflects on
②
the relationship between the poem and the observation of reality.
It is thus noteworthy that in fr. 115. 14 Empedocles uses in a
single hemistich
,
,
,
,
two terms whose meanings are elsewhere tightly
connected with the new conceptions he elaborates. If we consider that
the narrator of the Purifications was banished and forced to incarnate in
order to be purified of his crime which he committed due to the trust
,
, it is then very remarkable that, in fragment 3, the
notion of purity ( καθαρ%ν στομ'των, l. 3.2 ) was also given specific
he put in Strife
importance. Thus all these elements function as hints in the text that
invite the listener to draw for himself these conclusions concerning
,
,
the relationship between the daimons crime and the new definition of
poetic discourse. We here have a body of evidence that allows us to
accept that within the Purifications the new poetic discourse featured
,
,
in the poem On nature works as a counterpart of the crime that the
daimon commited towards the divine the poem On nature is reanalyzed
:
in the Purifications as an act of piety towards the gods
— and especially
towards Love since the Muse is dependent on her power. The aim of
,
the poem is to describe the role of the four elements and that of Love
Bollack considers that it
① Diels considered τ%ν to refer to Parmenides 1901 107
refers to those who profess the false promises of fr. 111 DK 1969 III p. 26
Sturz and
Karsten preferred not to give a definite referent to the pronoun Sturz 1805 p. 639 Karsten
1838 p.175 Wright 1995 p.158 .
② Chantraine 2008 pp.868 869.
(
,
;
,
,
)
, );
( , , );
(
, ;
207
208
西方古典学辑刊·第一辑
and Strife at every level of the universe but the narrator describes the
;
poem as dependent on the power of a Muse connected to Love. Hence
the poem On nature makes sense in the context of the Purifications as
,
,
a counterpart of the trust the narrator put in Strife at the expense of all
other gods
,
and which motivated his crime. We may speak of
“ counterpart” since, as I argued, the aim of the poem On nature is to
give justice to the role of each principle.
Conclusion
Empedocles intended to provide a new definition of traditional
theology a new interpretation of the world and a new understanding
,
,
of human nature. By describing his Muse as connected to the power of
Love and by advocating a piety directed towards the true gods
,
, he
takes a stance on the role of poetic composition within his philosophical
system
and
,
in which reformations of theology
,
cosmology
,
biology
,
—consequently—poetry are tightly connected. He also explains why
the earlier poets are mistaken: they modified the true message of the
Muse to attain mortal honor. He then constructs a close relationship
between what the poets express and the concrete conditions of
performance of their poems.
His own
poetic
composition
is
based
on
very
specific
epistemological grounds when the poetic discourse bears on the world
,
justified from within Empedocless system by a biological argument
:
:
there is a collaboration between sense perception and poetry. This is
Strife divided mens faculties of knowledge within their bodies. When
the poetic discourse bears on gods who escape sense perception
narrator lets the Muse speak.
, the
The various levels of poetic technique meter and prosody the use
(
,
of similes of catalogues of ring and spiral composition of Ritornell
,
,
,
209
Poetry and Philosophy in Empedocles Two Poems One Project
:
and of episodic composition
)
,
are adapted to the project of the
philosopherpoet. His work on the choice of the internal addressees also
allows him to add an ethical aspect to his thought and to take a stance
,
on the role he gives to his original philosophical knowledge in the Greek
world of his time the internal addressees represent a projection of what
:
the audience will become if they understand and accept the contents of
the poems.
I have argued
, finally, that
Empedocless project was unified
through the poem On nature and the Purifications. The latter interprets
the former as an atonement for the crime that was committed by the
daimon when he put his trust in Strife
—at the expense of all the other
gods or divine principles. The Purifications and the poem On nature
, of which we may collect traces in the
fragments, that bears on the notions of madness, persuasion, piety,
feature a thematic network
and purification.
Therefore at all the levels of meaning and poetic construction that
,
we examined we can conclude that poetry and philosophy are unified
,
by Empedocles in one single project
, both intellectual and aesthetic.
One of the strengths of Empedocless proposal is to integrate poetic and
cultural traditions on which he critically draws to reform them into a
(
)
,
philosophical poem which provides new and strong answers to the
fundamental questions that define human beings and our understanding
of the universe.
( Xavier Gheerbrant, Assistant Professor of Philosophy, Sichuan
University , School of Public Administration, Department of Philosophy)
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